Introduction to English Syntax Level 1 Course Ron

Introduction to English Syntax Level 1 Course Ron Kuzar Department of English Language and Literature University of Haifa Chapter 8 Major Sentence Patterns: Extraposition Sentence

Two More Word Classes • Before we address the extraposition sentence pattern, we need to define two additional word classes: – The infinitive (Inf), – The gerund (Gd). • Both express abstract notions of the verb, and in many cases they are syntactically interchangeable. • The semantic and conceptual differences between them will not concern us here, only their syntactic behavior.

The Infinitive (Inf) • The infinitive is formed by putting to before the bare verb form: to write, to eat, etc. • The infinitive is sensitive to aspect: – Progressive: to be eating, to be writing. – Perfect: to have eaten, to have written. – Perf. Prog. : to have been eating, to have been writing. • And it may be passivized: – to be eaten, to have been written.

The Infinitive Phrase (Inf. P) • The Inf. P contains a predicate and other components associated with it (complements and adjuncts). It does not contain a subject. • Here are some verbal Inf. P: – To eat a banana, to be writing a book, to have arrived, to rain. • Here are some copular Inf. P. Copular Inf. Ps contain the copula or linking verb and the predicate NP, AP, or PP): – To be a woman, to be well, to be on the roof, to sound hungry, to look pretty.

Terminological Note • Some linguists view the Inf. P as optionally having a subject, preceded by for: – (For me) to eat bananas. – (For the cat) to be on the roof. – (for it) to rain. • For reasons that cannot be gone into here, we will view this For-phrase in the extraposition pattern as part of the subordinating clause: – It’s good for him [to go], – It’s good [for him to go].

Terminological Note • Infinitive phrase or infinitive clause? • Linguists who view the Inf. P as containing an optional subject, tend to call it an infinite (infinitival) clause, because it looks to them more like a full sentence. • Since we do not include the subject in the Inf. construction, we prefer the term phrase, comparing it to a VP, not to the full clause.

Some Syntactic Positions of Inf. P • The Inf. P may serve as Subj. or Obj. : – To read books makes me happy. – To read books is a good habit. – I hope to read one book every week. – I hope for him to win this game. • It may serve as predicate of a Cop sentence: – My aim is to read one book every week. – To live is to love. • It may serve as an adjunct purpose phrase: – I do it (in order) to please my parents.

The Gerund (Gd) • The Gerund (Gd) has the –ing ending: – Going, finding, living, etc. • The gerund is sensitive to perfect aspect: – Having gone, having found, having lived. – Not having lived there is something I hope to rectify. • The gerund is sensitive to passivization: – Being shot, being written, being found. – Being shot is a quicker way to die than being mauled by a lion.

Some Syntactic Positions of Gd. P • The Gd. P may serve as Subj. , Obl. , and PP adjunct. • Subject: – Writing letters annoys me. • Direct Object: – I hate writing letters. • Oblique Object: – I usually refrain from writing letters. • PP adjunct: – I could live without writing letters.

Terminological Note • Since the Inf. P and Gd. P are nominalized and occupy mostly NP positions, they are called nominals. • Another form of nominalization is the packaging of a sentence in a subordinate that -clause. It also often appears in NP positions: – I have found my keys. – I have found that I have water rights on this ditch.

Nominals in Valency • The valency of a predicate may specify a nominal as an argument, instead of an NP. NP[person] find I I found NP/That-Clause my keys. that I had water rights on this ditch. NP[person] want NP/Inf. P I I soup. to help them. wanted

Extraposition (XP) sentences • Examples: Group One: – It could be great to see you all in one place. – It is fun being in the same decade with you. – it is in order that we acknowledge their input. – It leaves me breathless to think about it. • Examples: Group Two: – Yesterday, it was reported that they have been denied a filming permit in the shopping district. – It is well known that citric acid triggers coughing. – It has been rumored that she is recording a new album.

It is an expletive • The initial element it is an expletive: • It cannot be replaced with this. – *This could be great to see you all in one place. • It cannot be stressed. – *IT could be great to see you all in one place. • It cannot be asked about: – *What could be great to see you all in one place?

Caveat • Without the nominal, it must be understood as a pronoun referring back to a real thing. • It can be replaced with this. – Lets go to the pool. It/this could be great. • It can be stressed. – IT could be great. • It can be asked about: – What could be great?

The formula of the XP sentence Pattern • Based on the example above, the formula has the following form (not final; to be updated) • Note: V and Cop are represented separately: It It (M) Cop V N/A/P Nominal • The specific valency of each predicate determines which nominal is to be used.

The Evaluative Sub-Pattern • In the evaluative sub-pattern, the predicate is evaluative, and the nominal represents the situation evaluated: It (M) It V may pay Cop N/A/P It would be Nominal to go. Nominal good to go. Evaluative predicate Evaluated situation

Terminological Note • Evaluative means modal. However, modal is reserved in English for a verbal word class, so using the term separately for a class and a function might be confusing. • Modality/evaluation has to do with the assessment of a situation as possible, necessary, advisable, preferable, costincurring, and some other similar assessment: – It is possible/necessary/advisable/preferable to do this. – It takes an hour/costs a dollar to do this.

The Quotative Sub-Pattern • In the quotative sub-pattern, the predicate is quotative, and the nominal represents the report quoted: It (M) It has been It has V decided Nominal to go. Cop N/A/P Nominal been in the stars that we go. Quotative predicate Quoted report

Terminological Note • The predicate may be active or passive: – It follows that… – It has been announced that… • In either case, the quotation is anonymous in this pattern by definition (though the source can be restored in an adjunct by-phrase). – It has been announced by the government that… • This is, of course, not the case with active V sentences, such as: – The Secretary of State announced that…

One or Two Meanings in the XP Pattern? • The two sub-patterns have the same form. • Supposedly, they have two distinct meanings. • But there are some borderline cases: – It is well established that artichokes contain iron. • Is this the speaker's evaluation of the situation or the speaker's quotation of the report? • Could we, perhaps, include quotation in evaluation? • Isn’t there always a measure of estrangement in anonymous quotation?

Adding another Component • Let us have a look at the following sentences: • Evaluative: – It is legal for her to raise my rent. – It is hard on him to change schools every year. – It annoys them that I refuse to reveal my age. • Quotative: – It has been explained to the patient that we will only disclose relevant information. – It was suggested to me to use the IP address of the mail server. – it suddenly dawned on me that the summer was over.

The Affectee • The added component is the entity affected by the evaluation or the quotation. • Typically it is human (as in the examples above). – Exceptions do exist: • It is best for the soup to be strained through a fine mesh strainer. • We call it the affectee.

Updated Formula for XP • With the affectee added, the formula of the XP sentence pattern is as follows: It (M) It has been It (M) It has [VPV NP/PP] suggested to me Nominal to go. Cop [NP/AP/PP N/A/P PP] been for her to go. legal Nominal

That May be Omitted • Under certain circumstances the word that may be omitted in the that-clause. • Don't let this mislead you in identifying the pattern: – It's a good thing [that] you're not an octopus. – Well, it's clear [that] we're getting nowhere.

Is the Nominal a Subj. /Obj. ? It has been giving me much trouble to do this right. • The VP has a double object: oblique “me” and direct “much trouble”. Now, verbs don’t have more than 2 objects. Hence, the nominal cannot be an object. • Yet, it is not a straightforward subject either, since there is a subject: the expletive. • Furthermore, nominals do not carry case, and cannot be replaced and tested by case carrying pronouns.

Sample Question • Identify the XP sentences in the passage and classify them into their two sub-patterns: It's often been said that the best way to get in the game industry is through interviews. It requires the least amount of experience. After some failures, I realized my passion for game design wasn't enough to convince anyone to hire me. It didn't matter that I was a CS grad. It became obvious I needed to have a real game to show. It took me a couple of months to put one together, but then interviewers started paying attention to me. It was fascinating to see their reactions. It was absolutely fascinating.

Answer • XP Quotative: – It's often been said that the best way to get in the game industry is through interviews. • NOT XP: – It requires the least amount of experience. • XP Evaluative: – It didn't matter that I was a CS grad. • XP Quotative (that omitted): – It became obvious I needed to have a real game to show.

Answer Continued • XP Evaluative: – It took me a couple of months to put one together. • XP Evaluative: – It was fascinating to see their reactions. • NOT XP: – It was absolutely fascinating.

Homework • Identify the XP sentences in the following sentences and classify them into their two sub-patterns (evaluative and quotative): – It has come to my attention that students have not been aware of the regulations. – I have been informed that the event will take place after all. – It is unfortunate and certainly not my fault. – It might be best to just write to her again. – It’ll cost you a fortune to fix it. [Continued on next slide]

[Homework continued] – It could take days to restore water supplies. – It is useful to all members of the department. – It sounds awful to say this, but I will anyway. – It's great for us to end the weekend that way. – It’s so good you came today. – It’s been fun spending these days with you. – This is beneficial for the whole community that lives here. – It looks useful to me to download this program. – It has been decided, and that’s it!