Introduction to English Syntax Level 1 Course Ron

Introduction to English Syntax Level 1 Course Ron Kuzar Department of English Language and Literature University of Haifa Chapter 9 Structural Alternations: The Wh-Cleft sentence

Structural vs. Order Alternations • Order alternations involve different word orders of the same pattern. • Some alternations are more radical; they may involve order change, but they also involve a structural change in the sentence. • For example: – The storm broke the door yesterday. – What the storm broke yesterday was the door. – What the storm did yesterday was break the door. – What happened yesterday was that the storm broke the door.

Alternations work across patterns • V sentence: – The storm broke the door yesterday. – What the storm broke yesterday was the door. • XP sentence: – It is striking that most of them have a Western background. – What is striking is that most of them have a Western background. • Existential sentence: – There is a lot of confusion. – What there is, is a lot of confusion.

Simplex form and alternations • Simplex form: – The storm broke the door yesterday. • Alternations: Order alternation: – Yesterday the storm broke the door. Wh-alternation: – What the storm broke yesterday was the door.

Terminological Note • Simplex a Latin noun meaning “the simple one”

The Formula of Wh-Clefts • The Wh-cleft sentence is a copular sentence. On one side of the copula is the Wh-phrase and on the other – an NP or a nominal: – What I need is a notebook. – A notebook is what I need. – What I want is to go home. – To go home is what I want. – What I miss is going to the movies. – Going to the movies is what I miss. – What I hope is that we continue that trend. – That we continue that trend is what I hope.

Terminological Note • Wh-Cleft (sentence) • Also: Pseudo-Cleft (sentence)

The Wh-Cleft and the Simplex • In the cases above, to see the related simplex sentence, you just erase the formula what…is… – What I need is – I need a notebook. – What there is, is a lot of confusion. – There is a lot of confusion.

Deeper Structural Changes 1 • Do-insertion: the verb is broken down to do+bare verb form: – Broke did break – Sleeps does sleep – The storm broke the door. – What the storm did was break the door. – The storm has broken the door. – What the storm has done was break the door. • In this case the component on the right is not an NP or a nominal, but a (bare) VP.

Deeper Structural Changes 2 • If the sentence represents an event, the whole sentence may be put into a that-clause, and the Wh-component consists of the verb happen (or its synonyms): – The storm broke the door. – What happened was that the storm broke the door. – What occurred was that the market fell a lot further. – What transpired was that I got a quick tour of the factory. • When deeper structural changes are involved, identifying the simplex sentence takes more than just erasing the formula.

Sequence of Tenses? • Note that when the event is in the past, as in: – The fire consumed the building. the clefting is done in the present: – What the fire consumed is the building. • Some writers, however, prefer the tenses to be aligned, hence the copula is in the past: – What the fire consumed was the building.

Terminological Note • Cleft is the past participle form of the verb cleave. • The gerund of this verb is cleaving. • Clefting is a technical term that has been formed independently of the original behavior of the verb.

No Linking Verbs • In regular copular sentences the copula has been shown to be subject to replacement by linking verbs. • This is not so with Wh-clefts. – *What Mary bought seems a loaf of bread. – *What Mary bought remains a loaf of bread. – *A loaf of bread seems what Mary bought. – * A loaf of bread remains what Mary bought.

The Sentential Function of Wh-Clefts • In Wh-clefts the NP (or its substitutes) is identified as the missing component of an incomplete statement. • The incomplete statement is in the Wh-part: – What I need… – What happened… – What the storm did… • The missing component is then identified: – What I need… – What happened… – What the storm did… is a notebook. is that the storm etc. is break the door.

Identificational Sentence • Every unmarked sentence could have an identificational meaning: – What did the wind break? – The wind broke the door. • But it could also just be descriptive: – And what happened afterwards? – The wind broke the door. • The Wh-cleft sentence is marked for identification. • Its meaning is always identificational. • It identifies the missing component.

The discourse Function of Wh-Clefts • The identificational function is used for discourse functions. • When the identified component is at the end, it almost always bears stress, thus being marked as the new information in the sentence. – What he is is a SWEET MAN. – What fell was the HAMMER. • The Wh-part of the sentence just leads towards it.

More on the Discourse Function • When the Wh-part is last, there are two possibilities. Either the last part is stressed: – Her job is what I WANTED. • Or the first part is stressed: – Her JOB is what I wanted. • Accordingly, different parts of the message become salient in the general organization of the sentence. They are focused on. • We will not go into this in more detail here.

A peculiarity of English • In questions, we use what for inanimate entities and who for animate ones: – What are we having for dinner? – Who are we having for dinner? – Unless you have the mind of a cannibal, these questions are clearly distinct. • Note, however, that the Wh-cleft sentence is missing the animate counterpart: – What we are having for dinner is chicken soup. – * Who we are having for dinner is Bill. • BTW: The more usual form is: Who are we having over for dinner?

Alternatives • English uses circumlocutions to solve this problem. You might say: – The person I am closest to is my neighbor. – The one I am closest to is my neighbor. • If the Wh-part refers to many, you might say: – The people I am closest to are my neighbors. – Those/the ones I am closest to are my neighbors. • Often, though, this alternation is altogether avoided with animate candidates.

Caveat • Not all sentences that contain a Wh-phrase are Wh-clefts. • Wh-phrases may replace NPs in regular sentences: – I’ll have/eat/order fish. – I’ll have/eat/order what(ever) you are having. • This is NOT a Wh-cleft sentence. • It does not have the copular formula with the NP (or one of its substitutes discussed above): • [NP] is [what…] or: [what…] is [NP]

Sample Question • Identify the Wh-cleft sentences. • Write their simplex form: – Bread and butter is what I really want. – I’ll give you what you want. – What you have in mind is unreasonable. – What you are looking for is right over there. – What you have found is mine. – I hate what they do to you. – What I like most in this department is syntax.

– What can I do to make you feel better? – baked potatoes is what they had on the menu. – Those who volunteered are doctors and lawyers.

Answer – Bread and butter is what I really want. Simplex: I really want bread and butter. – What I like in this department is syntax. Simplex: I like syntax in this department. – baked potatoes is what they had on the menu. Simplex: They had baked potatoes on the menu. – Those who volunteered are doctors and lawyers. Simplex: Doctors and lawyers volunteered.

Homework • Identify the Wh-cleft sentences. • Write their simplex form: – This is exactly what I was afraid of. – What you did makes no sense. – What he wrote is not reasonable. – What she just said is that they are equal. – What Mary saw was a lion. – Being tired is what John detests. – Those who registered are John and Mary. – Paul and Linda are the ones I want to meet.