Chapter 6 The Great War 1914 1918 1917

Chapter 6 The Great War (1914 -1918) (1917 -1918)

Background The Progressive Presidents spent enormous time working and reworking economic agendas America was suffering economically, but showed small signs of recovery However, America was ill-prepared for any of the events that were about to begin

The Road to War In Europe, there was intense rivalries over trade, empire, and military strength, yet war did not seem inevitable � There were signs of international cooperation � Agreements on telegraphs (1865), postage (1875), copyright (1880), and time zones (1890) � World Court promised to solve international disputes � Politicians and diplomats predicted technology and communications would lead to permanent peace

The Road to War “Nationalism” � The creation of Germany (1871) Formed from a coalition of small states Began to increase the size of its Navy Great Britain responded by building more battleships Breaking the balance of power � Two military alliances Rivalry and jealousy led nations to form alliances in the form of treaties Triple Alliance (Central Powers) Germany, Austria Hungary, and Italy Triple Entente (Allied Powers) Great Britain, France, and Russia

The Road to War � Destroying the Habsburgs Austria-Hungary falling apart The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand The problem of nationalism The problem of Bosnia-Herzegovina The Serbs The Black Hand-a secret military society formed on 9 May 1911 by officers in the Army of the Kingdom of Serbia, originating in the conspiracy group that assassinated the Serbian royal couple (1903), led by captain Dragutin Dimitrijević "Apis". June 28, 1914 by Serbian terrorists The Domino Effect- Europe at War (August 1914) Austria-Hungary wants to punish Serbia Russia mobilizes to aid Serbia Germany, supporting Austria-Hungary, declares war on Russia and France When Germany invaded Belgium to attack France, Great Britain declared war The slaughter began Within a few months, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers Italy joined the Allied Powers after secretly promised additional territory after the war

The Road to War Japan declared war on Germany in order to acquire German land rights in China and the Pacific Islands Important to note: Spain, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, and initially the US, remained neutral Eventually soldiers from New Zealand Australia fought side by side with French speaking black Africans The Fighting Begins � European expectations � Short Battle Relatively few causalities Full of Glory The Reality Long war Bloody (over 20 million dead) Horrific Chemical weapons, tanks, airplanes, trench warfare, etc. ) New military technology § Miles of trenches dug, Rapid-fire rifles, improved explosives, incendiary shells, tracer bullets, improved artillery (very accurate from miles away), and submarines and battleships to fight battles around the world Generals on both sides continually ordered for troops to charge, to an almost certain death European nations drew upon the empires for troops and supplies

The Road to War

The Road to War spreads beyond European borders British and French fought in Africa trying to capture the German colonies The British occupied Mesopotamia (Iraq) and fought a bloody war against the Turks along the Black Sea The Turks used the war to massacre an estimated 800, 000 Armenians in one of the worst acts of genocide in History The Armenian Genocide

The Road to War THE SPOILS OF WAR

The US Response Neutrality � Many Americans sought world peace and a few sought an end to the war through mediation, but others could hardily wait to leap into the adventure � Some Americans joined ambulance units (Ernest Hemingway, and many others) Our volunteered for the French Foreign Legion Volunteer pilots attached to the French Army Most Americans favored the Allies Ties of language and culture tipped the scale towards the Allies Trade caused American businesses to support the Allies Most newspapers and editors had close ethnic, culture, and sometimes economic ties to the Allies � Newspapers described the Germans as barbaric Huns and published stories about the atrocities, even tough some were planted by British propaganda experts Even Wilson perceived that England France were fighting to preserve civilization from evil Prussians Some Americans supported the Central Powers About 8 million people of Germany and Austria-Hungary descent lived in the US and supported their former nations The Anti-British feelings from some Irish-Americans led them to side not so much with Germany, but as against England

The US Response � The US definition of neutrality- “but as for going to war to save civilization, let France and England do that” “Business as usual” The outbreak of caused immediate economic panic in the US Wilson closed the stock exchange Discouraged loans to belligerent nations Most difficult was the matter of neutral trade § Great Britain formed an illegal blockade, mined the North Sea, and began seizing American ships § Wilson accepted this action as he was convinced that the destines of the US and England were intertwined, and that caused him to react more harshly towards German violations of international laws § American trade to the Central Powers declined between 1914 and 1916 from $169 million to just over $1 million § In that same period, American trade to the Allies went from $825 million to over $3 billion § At the same time the US began to ease the loan restriction with the Allies � The US gradually ceased to be neutral The European definition of neutrality “stay out”

Other Pressing Issues Closer to Home Disastrous Civil War in the Dominican Republic � US offered to take over country’s finance and to serve as police force When Dominican leaders rejected the proposal, Wilson sent in the Marines Although America built schools, roads, and hospitals, the Dominican people resented American presence Intervention in Haiti � Same type of issue with similar results Wilson kept the Marines in Nicaragua (sent by Taft in 1912) to prop up a pro-American regime and acquire the right through a treaty to intervene at any time to preserve order and protect American property. � The Marines would remain in Nicaragua until 1933

Other Pressing Issues Closer to Home The Mexican Revolution � Americans had long held investments and support in and from Mexico � Dictator Porfirio Diaz was a longtime supporter of American influence in Mexico 40, 000 citizens lived in Mexico by 1910 Americans held nearly $1 billion of investments in Mexico In 1911, Francisco Madero, a reformer, wanted to destroy the privileges of the upper class Revolt against the dictatorship is successful and Madero takes over government In 1913, Madero was deposed and murdered by General Victoriano Huerta Wilson, to the shock of many businessmen and diplomats, refused to recognize the Huerta government and set out to remove the “government of butchers” Three separate armies opposed Huerta (Emiliano Zapata, Poncho Villa, and Venustiano Carranza) Wilson decides to send in the troops to intervene Battle of Vera Cruz § Mobs of Mexican citizens were outraged and began destroying American property wherever they could find it § Wilson’s actions outraged many in Europe, Latin America, and the US

Other Pressing Issues Closer to Home Huerta eventually deposed, but Civil War continued US backs Carranza as new president US now has to deal with angry Poncho Villa raids US territory in Columbus, New Mexico Wilson sends troops, led by Brigadier General John Pershing, into Mexico to capture Villa (1916 -1917) Carranza, angered by the presence of US troops in Mexico, sent bitter note to Wilson seeking immediate withdrawal Then an American patrol group was attacked by a Mexican garrison Wilson finally recalled the troops in 1917. If not for the ongoing war in Europe, it is highly probable that the US and Mexico would had started a war.

Other Pressing Issues Closer to Home Heading Towards War � The Lusitania (1915) An unarmed British luxury liner � Carrying American passengers (120) Carrying war supplies Sunk by German U-Boat (submarine) in less than 18 minutes Outraged Americans call for war Wilson placed restrictions on American travel by ships, to or from, countries at war Instead of war, Wilson called for a reparation for the loss of American life Bryan resigns as Secretary of State, citing that America was not being truly neutral The Arabic Sunk by a German U-Boat 2 more Americans die Another unprovoked attack against a defenseless ship An outpouring of books and articles urged the nation to prepare for war Wilson, still reluctant for war, asked Congress for an enlarged and reorganized army (November 4, 1915) § Southern and Western congressmen provided opposition The Army Reorganization Bill (June 1916) increased the regular army to just over 200, 000 and integrated the National Guard into the defense plan

Other Pressing Issues Closer to Home � US Response (1915 -1916) William Jennings Bryan Wilson’s Secretary of State Wants to prohibit US citizens from traveling abroad (accepting Europe’s definition of neutrality Arabic Pledge Germany promises not to attack neutral ships Promises to warn luxury liners before firing Unfortunately, these promises could led to Germany losing the war Wilson declares triumph that Europe has accepted American neutrality

Other Pressing Issues Closer to Home Election of 1916 Wilson running for second term Wilson appoints Louis D. Brandeis, a Jewish descendant, to the US Supreme Court This move won major support from the social justice progressives because he had always championed for their causes § Wilson also pushed through to Congress the Workman’s Compensation Bill (1916) § Keatings-Owen Child Labor Bill limited interstate commerce goods produced by children under 14 and in some cases under the age of 16 § Federal Farm Loan Act extended long-term credit to farmers Progressives of all kinds enthusiastically supported Wilson However, the election turned on foreign affairs Republicans ignored Roosevelt’s attempt at the nomination, and instead selected Charles Evans Hughes, a former governor of New York § His platform was the “straight and honest neutrality” and “adequate preparedness” § Attacked Wilson for not promoting American rights in Mexico and for giving in to the child labor’s unreasonable demands Wilson responded that electing Hughes would guarantee war with both Mexico and Germany

Other Pressing Issues Closer to Home � As the campaigns progressed, the peace issue became more important, and the “He kept us out of war!” echoed through every Democratic rally The election was very close Wilson actually went to bed thinking he had lost the election, until California results showed he had won the state by less than 4, 000 votes Wilson triumphed by carrying the West as well as the South 1917 Germany renounces the Arabic Pledge Says it will sink all ships on sight, including neutral ones Tells Americans to stay home Author Zimmerman’s telegraph is intercepted German foreign minister offers Mexico a deal If Mexico will join Germany in a war against the US Germany will help Mexico reclaim territory lost to the US in 1848 Telegram released to the public on March 1, 1917. Americans are outraged! US declares war in April of 1917

The US Joins the War The Critical Moment � The Russian Revolution Workers, housewives, and soldiers rose up in March 1917 against Tsarist government inept conduct of war The army had suffered staggering loses Civilian conditions were desperate Food was scarce Railroads and industry had nearly collapsed Monarchy is overthrown At first, Wilson and other Americans were enthusiastic about the new republic led by Alexander Kerensky He promoted to continue the struggle against Germany Within months the revolution took a more extreme turn

The US Joins the War Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin) returns from exile and leads the radical Bolsheviks to victory over the Kerensky regime in November of 1917 Lenin, a brilliant revolutionary tactician, was a follower of Karl Marx was a German radical philosopher who had described the alienation of the working class under capitalism and predicted a growing split between the proletariat (workers) and the capitalists Lenin argued that capitalist nations eventually would be forced to go to war over raw materials and markets Believing that capitalism and imperialism went hand in hand. Lenin argued the only way to end imperialism was to end capitalism This philosophy was a direct assault on Wilson’s idea of bringing the US into the war “to make the world safe for democracy. ” Lenin creates a communist government that divides Russia into four socialist republics, which later established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or the Soviet Union in 1922. Lenin signs peace treaty with Germany (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) The war in the east ends Germany now free to concentrate everything against the Western Front (Britain, France, and the US)

The US Prepares for War Convincing the American people that war is necessary � Gigantic campaign to persuade the public that the US had gone to war to promote democracy and prevent the “Huns” from overrunning the world Patriotic Crusade became Anti-German and Anti-Immigrant Sauerkraut was renamed “liberty cabbage” Many families Americanized German surnames Several cities banned the music of German composers South Dakota prohibited speaking German on the telephone In one incident in East St. Louis, a mob seized Robert Prager, a young German. American, stripped him of his clothes, dressed him in the American flag, marched him through the streets, and then lynched him The ringleaders of the lynching were brought to trial, but were acquitted on the grounds that the act was a “patriotic murder. ” Other acts for the “Patriotic Crusade” Los Angeles police ignored complaints that Mexicans were harassed because they believed that all Mexicans were pro-German Senator Robert La Follette, who had voted against declaring war, was burned in effigy and censured by the University of Wisconsin At a number of universities, professors were dismissed for questioning the morality or necessity of America’s participation in the war

The US Prepares for War Espionage Act (June 15, 1917) Providing imprisonment of up to 20 years or a fine of up to $10, 000, or both, for people who aided the enemy or who “willfully cause…insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny or refusal of duty in the military forces of the US Congress later added the “Trading with the Enemy Act” and a “Sedition Act” The latter prohibited disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive remarks about the form of government, flag, or uniform of the United States Prohibited citizens from opposing the purchase of war bonds Socialist Eugene Debs was sentenced to 10 years in prison for opposing the war § Debs got one million votes for the 1920 election while in prison Ricardo Flores Magon, a leading Mexican American labor organizer, got 20 years in prison for criticizing Wilson’s Mexican policy and violating the Neutrality Acts

The US Prepares for War � Raising an Army Selective Service Act (1917) Authorized the federal government to raise a national army for the American entry into World War I through the compulsory enlistment of people Eligible individuals were: § Unmarried registrants with no dependents § Married registrants with independent spouse and/or one or more dependent children over 16 with sufficient family income if drafted � 24 million men register 2. 8 million were inducted National Draft Building against Germany 5 million Americans drafted “ 90 Day Wonders” (in the US) Represented the amount of time many Americans spent in actual combat. Many had never held or fired a rifle prior to this occasion. “Doughboys” (in France) Average soldier was 5 feet 7 ½ inches tall, 141. 5 pounds, and about 22 years old Sang songs popular during the war For some the war was horrifying, but for other the experience was liberating and the most exciting adventure of their life. Ill-educated, unsophisticated young men from farms, small towns, and urban neighborhoods From all classes and ethnic groups

The US Prepares for War The African American Soldier Southerners feared giving black men a rifle In some cases, single white men undrafted, but black fathers were In Houston, 1917, violence erupted involving the Army’s all-black 24 th Infantry Division § A group of soldiers went on a rampage, killing 17 white civilians § More than 100 soldiers were court-martialed, 13 were condemned to death and hanged three days later before appeals could be filed Some were trained as junior officers and were assigned to the allblack 92 nd division, where the high-ranking officers were white § But blacks were considered unfit to fight § 80% worked as common laborers under white non-commissioned officers § Others worked as servants, drivers, and porters for white officers

The US Prepares for War The Home Front Gearing up for industrial production The National War Labor Board § Insisted on adequate wages and reduced hours § Tried to prevent exploitation of working women and children § If a munitions plant refused to accept the board’s policy, the government seized the plant § When workers threatened to strike, the board often ruled that they either went back to work or be drafted Wilson’s Administration § Favored the conservative labor movement of Samuel Gompers and his AFL. The Justice Department conducted massive raids on the offices of the more radical Industrial Workers of the World and arrested most of the leaders Working Women § Posters and patriotic speeches urged women to do their duty for the war effort § Women served as telephone operators, clerk-typists for the navy and marines, as nurses, or with organizations like the Red Cross § Only about 5% of the women employed during the war, mostly unmarried, were new to the workforce.

The US Prepares for War The Great Migration § With 4 million men in the armed forces and the flow of immigrants ended by the war, factories for the first time hired African Americans in large numbers § More African Americans came north § The cities of Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, and New York were completely transformed § Black migration set the stage for cultural energy of the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920’s and the rise of black political power in northern cities § Many found the racial tensions and violence existed in the north as well as the south The Commission on Training Camp Activities § The best example of the progressives influence on wartime activities § Set up early in the war to mobilize, entertain, and protect American servicemen at home and abroad § Organized community singing, baseball, established post exchanges, theaters, and university extension lectures § Also incorporated the progressive crusades against alcoholism and prostitution § Laws banned liquor sales to men in uniform and prostitution around the military bases § “Fit to Fight” was their motto

The US Prepares for War Fighting the War The Final German Push Spring 1918 British and French armies were down to their last reserves Italy’s army had nearly collapsed Russia plunged into a bitter internal struggle and signed a separate peace agreement with Germany In spring of 1918, Germany launches all out offensive By late May, German forces are within 50 miles of Paris Almost works, until the US finally showed in large numbers US stems the tide First American units saw action near Verdun in October 1917 By March 1918, more than 300, 000 American soldiers reached France By November 1918, that number had risen to more than 2 million American arrival allowed for an Allied offensive in the summer of 1918 While most soldiers were slow to see action, four regiments of black soldiers were assigned to the French Army The French were asked not to “spoil the Negroes” by allowing them to mix with the French civilian population. However, these soldiers fought so well that three of the regiments were later awarded the highest unit citation in the French Army (the Croix de Guerre)

The US Prepares for War Germany Sues for Peace The Armistice (November 11, 1918) Was the agreement that ended the fighting in Western Europe that compromised the First World War It went into effect on November 11, 1918, and marked a victory for the Allies and a complete defeat for Germany, although not formally a surrender The Germans were responding to the policies proposed by the US president (Wilson) in his Fourteen Points The actual terms included an end to hostilities, the withdrawal of German troops back into Germany borders, the preservation of infrastructure, the exchange of prisoners, a promise of reparations, the disposition of German warships and submarines, and conditions for prolonging or terminating the Armistice The War in the west ends

Negotiating Peace The Paris Peace Conference (1919) � Wilson’s 14 points Wilson’s delegation included: � College professors, technical experts, Secretary of State Lansing, Edward House (Wilson’s confidant), and many others Oddly, Wilson did not take Henry Cabot Lodge (the most powerful man in the Senate), or any other Republican Senators A serious blunder, since the Republicans controlled the Congress that would need to approve any peace treaty Argued for “open covenants of peace openly arrived at, ” freedom of the seas, equality of trade, and the self-determination of all peoples The Big Four Wilson (USA), Lloyd-George (Great Britain), Clemenceau (France), and Orlando (Italy) Britain and France agenda Punish Germany and cripple it economically, politically, and militarily American intentions were to achieve “peace without victory” and to make this the “war to end all wars”

Negotiating Peace The Treaty of Versailles (1919) � Germany forced to take responsibility for the war Morally- (War guilt clause) take all the blame for war…more than 20 million lives were lost!! Financially (War reparations payments) Loss of Military- total disarmament Loss of Territory Carved Austro-Hungarian empire into several new countries (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) to hopefully contain Bolshevism in Europe France was to occupy Germany’s industrial Saar region for 15 years, until a plebiscite would decide if they wanted to be a part of Germany or France Italy gained the port of Trieste Loss much of its oil- and coal-rich territory France and Britain allowed to take over portions of the Middle East Gave Germany’s Pacific colonies and China’s Shantung province to Japan Germany forced to sign the Treaty Wilson did not achieve peace without surrender, freedom of the sea lanes, or the abolition of trade barriers $56 Billion He did achieve the League of Nations Russia was excluded entirely Of note: a group of prominent women convened in Zurich, Switzerland to denounce the one-sided peace treaty that called for disarmament from only one side and exacted gigantic economic penalties from the Central Powers Jane Addams led the American delegation

Negotiating Peace The Battle for Ratification � Wilson brings the treaty home � Senate refuses to sign the treaty Henry Cabot Lodge Not the treaty Wilson promised � Wilson goes to the American people Travels the US urging support for the treaty Wilson collapses (1919) Pueblo, Colorado, Wilson is completely exhausted and his health is failing. He was rushed back to Washington where a few days later he suffered a massive stroke. For the final year and a half of his term the president was incapable of running the government and could not lead a fight for the league of nations As a result, the Treaty of Versailles was never signed by the US

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