Chapter 15 Police and Law Enforcement History of

Chapter 15 Police and Law Enforcement

History of Police § • English origins The London Police § Sir Robert Peel (Act for Improving the Police) § London police were structured along military lines

History of Police • Policing in the American Colonies § Colonial policing paralleled the British model § County sheriffs collected taxes and supervised elections § Nightwatchmen became known as “leatherheads” § Watchmen were not widely respected

History of Police • Early American Police Agencies § Boston created first formal police agency in 1838, followed by New York in 1844 and Philadelphia in 1854 § Early police maintained public health and swept streets § Politics dominated most departments § Nineteenth century police were largely incompetent

History of Police • Reform Movements § Uniforms introduced in 1853 in New York § Use of telegraph and call boxes § Creation of police administration boards to reduce corruption § Boston police Strike of 1914 heightened police reform

History of Police • The Advent of Professionalism § Influence of August Vollmer and Orlando W. Wilson § Technological advances (bicycles, motorcycles, and cars) § Efforts in the 1960 s included highly trained and rule oriented police

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • Federal Law Enforcement § Federal Bureau of Investigation originated in 1908 through the Department of Justice § FBI was reorganized in 1930 under the direction of J. Edgar Hoover § The FBI is an investigative agency which offers assistance to local law enforcement

Table 15. 1 Full-Time Sworn in Law Enforcement Officers in the United States

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • Other Federal Agencies § Drug Enforcement Administration: Illegal drugs and importation of narcotics § U. S. Marshals: court officers § Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms Bureau: jurisdiction over sales and distribution § The Internal Revenue Service: Enforces violations of tax laws § Department of Homeland Security: Terrorism

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • Weblink http: //www. atf. gov/index. htm#

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • Directorates of Homeland Security § Border and Transportation Directorate • U. S. Customs • Immigration and Naturalization • Federal Protective Services • Transportation Security Administration • Federal Law Enforcement Training Center • Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service • Office for Domestic Preparedness

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • The Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate § Federal Emergency Management Agency § Strategic National Stockpile and National Disaster Medical System § Nuclear Incident Response Team § Domestic Emergency Support Teams § National Domestic Preparedness Office

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • The Science and Technology Directorate § CBRN Countermeasures Programs § Environmental Measurements Laboratory § National BW Defense Analysis Center § Plum Island Animal Disease Center

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • The Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate § Federal Computer Incident Response Center § National Communications System § National Infrastructure Protection Center § Energy Security and Assurance Program

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • County Law Enforcement § Sheriff evolved from the early English shire reeve § Nearly 293, 823 full-time employees § Executors of jails, and criminal and civil processes

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • State Police § Texas Rangers organized in 1835 § Created due to low regard for local police and mobility of violators § Nearly 56, 000 full-time officers in 49 departments (Hawaii has no agency)

Law Enforcement Agencies Today • Metropolitan Police § Vast majority of police with nearly 13, 000 departments and nearly 565, 000 full-time employees § Forty-six departments employ 1, 000 or more officers § Nearly 800 departments employ 1 officer

Figure 15. 1 Organization of a Typical Metropolitan Police Department

CNN Clip - Patrolling The Border

Police Functions • Patrol Function § Most visible presence (foot, cars, motorcycles, helicopters, and other mechanized methods) § Patrol is demanding and often unrewarding § Police have initiated methods to improve patrol • Proactive Policing • Full Enforcement/Zero Tolerance • Targeting Crimes • Making Arrests • Adding Patrol Officers

Police Functions • • Investigative Function § First established in London in 1841 § Detectives use various techniques to identify offenders § Specialization of sting and undercover operations Are Investigations Effective? § Rand Corporation study suggested most of investigation time is spent in unproductive work § Patrol officers solve most of the cases

Police Functions • • Changing the Police Role § James Q. Wilson suggests the major role of police is “handling the situation” Community-Oriented Policing § Wilson and Kelling contend policing should be proactive Implementing COP § Began with foot patrols § Neighborhood Watch Community Policing in Action § Federal government has encouraged community policing

Figure 15. 2 Police Encounters With Citizens

Police Functions • • Problem-Oriented Policing § Herman Goldstein suggested police are too concerned with internal efficiency § Problems should be narrowly defined Criminal Acts/Criminal Places § High-visibility patrols • Combating Auto Theft (GPS and other technology) • Reducing Violence (Gang Tactical Detail)

Police Functions • Does Community Policing Work? § Many police experts embrace community policing § Samuel Walker suggests many police consider community policing a waste of time § Many police still focus on the core concepts of fight crime and service work

Police and the Rule of Law • Custodial Interrogation § Miranda decision and the Fifth Amendment § Exceptions to the Miranda rule include: • Impeaching testimony due to perjury • Testimony resulting from defendant’s testimony • Only applies to legal representation, not priests or other public officials • Inevitable discovery • Public safety doctrine • Intentional misleading statements by police • Admonishment does not apply to all interrogations • Admissions of mentally impaired defendants • Attorney requests to see the defendant • People who are mentally ill • Interrogation after invoking Miranda rights • Harmless errors

Police and the Rule of Law • Search and Seizure § Search warrants are required under common circumstances § Warrants are not required when: • A threshold of inquiry occurs (stop/frisk) • Incidental to an arrest • Automobile searches with probable cause • Motorist search • Consent given • Plain view • Nonphysical evidence (overheard conversations) • Hot pursuit/Exigency

Issues In Policing • Police Personality and Subculture § Personality includes: authoritarianism, suspicion, racism, hostility, insecurity, conservatism, and cynicism § Blue curtain subculture: Isolation and conflict may contribute to stress (Westly) § Police may learn to mistrust citizens § Hidden dangers and impact of moral solidarity (Crank) § Joining the subculture brings support from fellow officers (tough exterior and mistrusting motives) § Resistance to change

Issues In Policing • • • Police Style § Some officers are service oriented whereas others take a more active role in law enforcement Discretion § Selective enforcement affected by • Environmental and community factors • Departmental factors • Situational Influences • Legal factors • Race, Class, and Gender Limiting Discretion § Written rules § Civilian review boards

Issues In Policing • • • Women and Minority Police Officers § Compliance of federal guidelines have impacted the hiring of women and minority officers (near 20 percent of police) § Racial quotas (U. S. v. Paradise) Minority Officers § African Americans have less confidence in police than Whites § Black officers suffer “double marginality” Female Police Officers § Title VII led to the hiring of more female officers § Evaluations suggest women are equally or more effective than men in police work § Black women account for about 2 percent of police

Issues In Policing • • The Police and Violence § Verbal abuse by police was common but physical abuse by police is rare (Reiss study) § Use of weapons by police is rare § Blacks and Hispanics are more likely to experience threat of force more than Whites Deadly Force § Approximately 6600 civilians killed by police since 1976 • Exposure to threat and stress • Police workload • Firearm availability • Population type and density • Race and class discrimination • Lack of training and preparation

Issues In Policing • • • Controlling Force § Tennessee v. Garner (1985) prohibited shooting of unarmed felons § Development of administrative policies controlling deadly fire § Elaborate shooting review procedures § Federal Crime Control Act of 1994 Killing Police § 51 officers killed in 2000 § Nearly half while making arrests Nonlethal Weapons § Nearly 1000 local police forces have started using some nonlethal weapons (wood, rubber, or polyurethane bullets) § Research suggests nonlethal weapons may reduce use of force by police