Week 5 TOPICS Framing Theory Inoculation Theory and

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Week 5 TOPICS: Framing Theory, Inoculation Theory, and Persuasion Theories & Media Violence Theories

Week 5 TOPICS: Framing Theory, Inoculation Theory, and Persuasion Theories & Media Violence Theories Framing Theory Framing is a mass communication theory that refers to how the media packages and presents information to the public.

Gregory Bateson’s position Gregory Bateson is an anthropologist who first positioned theory in the

Gregory Bateson’s position Gregory Bateson is an anthropologist who first positioned theory in the year 1972.

What are Frames are systems of pre-conceived ideas used to organize and interpret new

What are Frames are systems of pre-conceived ideas used to organize and interpret new information. They function as rules that allow people to quickly process news

Media highlights events According to theory, the media highlights certain events and then places

Media highlights events According to theory, the media highlights certain events and then places them within a particular context to encourage or discourage certain interpretations.

Selective influence The theorists opine that the media exercises a selective influence over how

Selective influence The theorists opine that the media exercises a selective influence over how people view reality.

A second level agenda setting Framing is at times referred to as second-level agenda

A second level agenda setting Framing is at times referred to as second-level agenda setting. Why? Because it is very close to agenda setting theory.

Effect of Time and resources on framing theory Framing occurs in the media mostly

Effect of Time and resources on framing theory Framing occurs in the media mostly because of time and resources constraints on what can be reported. Therefore, journalists must choose which events to cover and which events to ignore; decide which facts, values and perspectives will be mentioned or given prominence. The above postulations means journalists apply their own interpretive frames when packaging news. It means, journalists are influenced by social norms, pressure groups, their routines and ideologies or political orientations. As a result some concepts, evaluations and recommendations that are in the news reports are promoted above other content. This affects the audience by limiting how they see and interpret events

Assumptions of framing theory 1. Journalists select the topic they will present and decide

Assumptions of framing theory 1. Journalists select the topic they will present and decide how they will be presented 2. These type of media activities by journalists determine the issues audiences think about and how they think about them 3. Audiences interpret information through their own frames. Audiences’ frames may overlap or contradict the media’s frame

Assumptions 4. frames are reinforced every time they are evoked positively or negatively 5.

Assumptions 4. frames are reinforced every time they are evoked positively or negatively 5. Frame building is a systematic process that occurs over time.

Political Ads Examples Political advertisements have provided valuable example/lessons in framing. How? 1. In

Political Ads Examples Political advertisements have provided valuable example/lessons in framing. How? 1. In an ad, President Obama touts his job creation record, citing over 4 million jobs added to the US economy since he assumed office. 2. In another ad, Governor Mitt Romney criticizes President Obama’s job creation by pointing out that unemployment is still hovering around 8 percent of the US population and the economy still lacks 261, 000 jobs that were lost during the president’s tenure. 3. However, one ad frames the numbers in a positive manner, while the other frames it negatively.

Inoculation Theory The theory was proposed by William Mc. Guire in 1960 s. It

Inoculation Theory The theory was proposed by William Mc. Guire in 1960 s. It states that to prevent persuasion it is necessary to strengthen pre-existing attitudes, beliefs, or opinion. The idea is that when a weak argument is presented in the inoculation message, processes of refutation or other means of protection will prepare for stronger arguments later.

Communication for defense The theory offers mechanisms by which communication is used to help

Communication for defense The theory offers mechanisms by which communication is used to help people defend their belief. The theory offers a way in which resistance to persuasion can be achieved.

Inoculation It involves injecting a substance into the body to weaken any form of

Inoculation It involves injecting a substance into the body to weaken any form of disease in order to prevent infection by the disease.

Vaccination It is a liquid substance that is injected into the body for protection

Vaccination It is a liquid substance that is injected into the body for protection against a particular disease or for preventing infection by a disease.

Concept of Vaccination The inoculation theory draws comparison with this concept of vaccination. In

Concept of Vaccination The inoculation theory draws comparison with this concept of vaccination. In a normal vaccination, a weakened form of the virus is injected into an individual in order to build resistance to a disease.

Shooting Paradigm In a normal vaccination, a weakened form of the virus is injected

Shooting Paradigm In a normal vaccination, a weakened form of the virus is injected into an individual in order to build resistance to a disease.

Inoculating a Reporter for Prevention A similar procedure is used to inoculate a reporter

Inoculating a Reporter for Prevention A similar procedure is used to inoculate a reporter from attacks on his belief or from engaging in spreading false information.

Inoculation for Fake News All news reporters must be inoculated against fake news. They

Inoculation for Fake News All news reporters must be inoculated against fake news. They must be given a message vaccination against fake news.

Inoculation Message According to theory, a weakened or smaller dose of a contrary argument

Inoculation Message According to theory, a weakened or smaller dose of a contrary argument called the inoculation message is given to the people.

Defense System These people who have been exposed to the weaker argument develop a

Defense System These people who have been exposed to the weaker argument develop a defense system that helps them to retain their beliefs and not change their attitudes when they are confronted with a stronger form of the argument.

Persuasion Theories What is Persuasion? Persuasion is a process of transmitting messages in an

Persuasion Theories What is Persuasion? Persuasion is a process of transmitting messages in an attempt to induce changes in attitudes and behaviour through involvement of a person’s cognitive and affective processes. In the definition three factors are emphasized 1. Conscious intent 2. Message transmission 3. Behavioural influence

Two Theoretical Models that underscore virtually all the persuasion theories: 1. Psychodynamic model 2.

Two Theoretical Models that underscore virtually all the persuasion theories: 1. Psychodynamic model 2. Socio-cultural model

Psychodynamic model Based on individual differences theory It holds that: “for a persuasive message

Psychodynamic model Based on individual differences theory It holds that: “for a persuasive message to be considered effective, it must succeed in altering the psychological functioning of the recipient in a way that such recipient will respond openly (overtly) with models of behaviour suggested by the communicator”. E. g. to encourage enlightened voting behaviour the communicator must get the electorate to develop favourable attitudes to the electoral process as a whole. To achieve this, the communicator can use psychological motivation such as hunger, status drive, opinion etc. as intervening variables between the message stimulus and audience response.

Socio-cultural model Based on social category and social relation theories The model seeks to

Socio-cultural model Based on social category and social relation theories The model seeks to explain “the ways in which demographic variables such as organizational membership, work roles, reference groups, cultural norms and primary group norms exercise social control and help to shape and channel people’s open actions in a way that depart from their own internal psychological dispositions”. Messages are presented in a way that makes recipients believe that these are socially acceptable mode of behaviour with reference to given situation The model presents a picture of Consensual Validation Those who fail to conform are represented as deviants, non-conformists Those who conformed are praised as integrated human beings, conformists It is mostly used in breastfeeding campaigns, revenue collection campaigns etc.

PERSUASION THEORIES The Two Persuasion Theories to discuss are: Value Change Theory and Social

PERSUASION THEORIES The Two Persuasion Theories to discuss are: Value Change Theory and Social Judgment Theory

VALUE CHANGE THEORY This theory is based on “the technique of comparative feedback to

VALUE CHANGE THEORY This theory is based on “the technique of comparative feedback to induce attitudinal or behavioural change”.

Example When someone discovers that he/she is less socially responsible than he/she had assumed

Example When someone discovers that he/she is less socially responsible than he/she had assumed he/she becomes self-dissatisfied and this can trigger a value change in him/her. Comparing your attitude against others to get a feedback that may trigger attitude or behavioural change in you

Value Testing In this instance people test their own values against the values of

Value Testing In this instance people test their own values against the values of other people, which are presumed to be socially more acceptable.

SOCIAL JUDGEMENT THEORY This theory focuses on attitudinal change based on careful thought while

SOCIAL JUDGEMENT THEORY This theory focuses on attitudinal change based on careful thought while using some social apparatus as a yardstick. It holds that: “an attitude is a more complex matter than is suggested by binary descriptions such as: Favourable/unfavourable or positive/negative

Two-stage Process The theory views attitude change as a two-stage process: the receiver of

Two-stage Process The theory views attitude change as a two-stage process: the receiver of a message first judges his/her attitude using social apparatus such as most acceptable to most unacceptable, favourable/unfavourable, positive/negative and then he/she makes necessary adjustments.

ATITUDE CONTINUUM The theorists proposed that “an attitude is better viewed as a continuum

ATITUDE CONTINUUM The theorists proposed that “an attitude is better viewed as a continuum with gradations or level of acceptability ranging from most acceptable to most unacceptable”.

LATITUDE The areas encompassing these gradations are called latitude Latitude of Acceptance (position a

LATITUDE The areas encompassing these gradations are called latitude Latitude of Acceptance (position a person finds acceptable) and Latitude of non-commitment (position in which a person is neutral or undecided) and Latitude of rejection (position a person finds decidedly unacceptable). A person’s persuasiveness on a given message depends on where the message falls on his/her attitude continuum.

Example If the message falls within person’s latitude of non-commitment (in which the person

Example If the message falls within person’s latitude of non-commitment (in which the person is not ego-involved), he/she will have little difficulty in going along with the persuasive message. If the message falls within person’s latitude of rejection (in which the person’s ego is involved) he/she is likely to resist the persuasive message, viewing it as much different to his/her attitude. If the message falls within a person’s latitude of acceptance, he/she will easily accept the persuasive message, viewing it more in agreement with his/her attitude.

MEDIA VIOLENCE THEORIES The two major culprits of public complaints about media violence are:

MEDIA VIOLENCE THEORIES The two major culprits of public complaints about media violence are: television and film. The public criticism of media violence is focused on the expansion of television and explosion of advertising. The crimes attributed to television include the following: 1 lowering public taste 2 encouraging real-life violence 3 encouraging delinquency (crime) 4 inducing extravagancy 5 supressing creative thinking 6 aggravating class differences

Counter Claims The exponents of television have made counter-claims that media have engaged in

Counter Claims The exponents of television have made counter-claims that media have engaged in the following functions: 1 exposing sin and corruption 2 guiding the public freedom of speech and expression 3 exposing viewers to refinements and culture 4 familiarizing viewers with world events 5 improving consumerism (goods purchase) and standard of living of viewers 6 providing harmless entertainment 7 enhancing instructional education and 8 aiding social mobilization and promoting grassroots Democracy

EMERGENT MEDIA VIOLENT THEORIES 1 Aggressive Cues Theory and 2 Reinforcement Theory

EMERGENT MEDIA VIOLENT THEORIES 1 Aggressive Cues Theory and 2 Reinforcement Theory

AGGRESSIVE CUES THEORY The theory assumes that “exposure to mass mediated aggression increases people’s

AGGRESSIVE CUES THEORY The theory assumes that “exposure to mass mediated aggression increases people’s level of emotional and psychological stimulation that can in turn lead to aggressive behaviour”.

Opposite Direction The theorists also assume that “exposure to media violence can also work

Opposite Direction The theorists also assume that “exposure to media violence can also work in the opposite direction, in which media can inhibit the actual expression of aggression through guilt”.

Lower Aggressive Arousal They also assume that “prior experience with or exposure to violence

Lower Aggressive Arousal They also assume that “prior experience with or exposure to violence can lower the level of aggressive arousal”. This presupposes the fact that aggressive cues theory is related to the individual differences theory on media effects.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY The theory assumes that “the mass mediated violence can reinforce an existing

REINFORCEMENT THEORY The theory assumes that “the mass mediated violence can reinforce an existing aggressive attitude that people bring to media exposure”.

Determinant Factors The theory holds that “certain factors can determine violent behaviour in individuals,

Determinant Factors The theory holds that “certain factors can determine violent behaviour in individuals, they include: social roles, personality features, family influence, peer-group influence, cultural norms and cultural values”. When these aforementioned factors are on the negative side and they are brought to media exposure they can easily be reinforced.

Model for Violence The theory also assumes that “mass mediated violence can provide a

Model for Violence The theory also assumes that “mass mediated violence can provide a primary model for violent behaviour in children and youth who are lacking social stability and fruitful social relationships”.

Rooted in other Theories The theory has its roots in (1) Individual Differences theory-it

Rooted in other Theories The theory has its roots in (1) Individual Differences theory-it explains how people with different behaviour can be reinforced by the same violent programme. (2) Social Categories theory-it views individuals as representatives of social groups and (3) Social Relations theory-it sees social stability and firm social relationships as effective antidotes to the influence of media violence.

Guiding Questions for the Week

Guiding Questions for the Week

Reading

Reading