Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World

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Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World Chapter 28

Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World Chapter 28

Intro: Popular Sovereignty and Political Upheaval • • • Impact of Enlightenment ideas Government

Intro: Popular Sovereignty and Political Upheaval • • • Impact of Enlightenment ideas Government for the people Against monarchical and aristocratic regimes North America: against British rule -> successful France: against monarchy -> failed, but lasting impact

Enlightened and Revolutionary Ideas • Most settled, agricultural societies were monarchies (justification through divine

Enlightened and Revolutionary Ideas • Most settled, agricultural societies were monarchies (justification through divine sanction) • Enlightenment Ideas (from philosophes): – Popular sovereignty: government as contract between rulers/ruled – religious tolerance and freedom of expression – Against legal and social privileges of aristocrats • But, not for all, just for those like them (educated men) • Ideas adopted by revolutionary leaders to justify reform of political and social structure

The American Revolution • Cause: weakening royal power (distance and inefficiency), colonists were accustomed

The American Revolution • Cause: weakening royal power (distance and inefficiency), colonists were accustomed to some autonomy • 1760 s: Britain tried to reassert control (needed $ after 7 years war) -> resistance • Colonists’ argument: no taxation without representation -> boycotts, protests, Continental Congress, Enlightenment-inspired Declaration of Independence, American Revolution (supported by other Europeans)

The American Revolution (cont. ) • Colonists won: 1781, British surrendered at Yorktown and

The American Revolution (cont. ) • Colonists won: 1781, British surrendered at Yorktown and 1783, Treaty of Paris • New state reflected Enlightenment principles – Individual rights, popular sovereignty, equality (for property-owning white men) – But, British law, culture, and social organization remained

The French Revolution • Based on Enlightenment ideas, but more radical than American: wanted

The French Revolution • Based on Enlightenment ideas, but more radical than American: wanted new pol, soc, and cultural structures (but had no experience with selfgovernment) • 1780 s: gov’t had fiscal problems (lots of debt and huge bureaucracy) -> taxes on nobility -> protests -> summoned the Estates General (1 vote per estate) – 3 rd estate wanted pol and soc reform

The French Revolution (cont. ) • 6/1789: 3 rd estate seceded and formed National

The French Revolution (cont. ) • 6/1789: 3 rd estate seceded and formed National Assembly • 7/1789: storming of the Bastille -> rebellion throughout France • 8/1789: Nat. Assem. – Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (equality for all, pop sov, indiv rights) • 1789 -91: Nat. Assem. reorganized society (abolished old order, peasant obligations, church lands, 1 st estate) – Constitution: constitutional monarchy, republic

The French Revolution (cont. ) • Response: nobles tried to get foreign support –

The French Revolution (cont. ) • Response: nobles tried to get foreign support – Nat. Assem. declared war on Austria, Prussia, Spain, Britain, Netherlands • The Convention (legislative body elected by universal male suffrage) – Universal conscription of people and resources for war – Sought out enemies at home: executed many with guillotine (Louis and Marie Antoinette)

The French Revolution (cont. ) • 1793 -94: Robespierre and Jacobin party dominated Convention

The French Revolution (cont. ) • 1793 -94: Robespierre and Jacobin party dominated Convention – Committee of Public Safety – Sought complete restructuring: eliminate al Christian influence – closed churches, forced priests to marry, developed “cult of reason”, non-religious calendar, re -numbered years, more rights to women, Reign of Terror (40, 000 killed, including Robespierre)

The French Revolution (cont. ) • 1795 -1799: conservatives took power and ruled as

The French Revolution (cont. ) • 1795 -1799: conservatives took power and ruled as The Directory – Failed to solve problems, inconsistence policies, challenges to authority • 1799: overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte (army officer, revolutionary supporter) -> set up Consulate (3 consuls, but he was in charge) • 1802: declared himself emperor

The Reign of Napoleon • Political stability, peace with and support of Roman Catholic

The Reign of Napoleon • Political stability, peace with and support of Roman Catholic Church and pope • 1804: revised body of law -> Civil Code – Political and legal equality for adult males – Merit-based qualifications for education and employment – Protection of private property – Confirmed Nat. Assem. ’s acts – Upheld patriarchal authority in family • Adopted in New World and other European states • But, limited free speech, approved secret police, ignored elected bodies, set up a dynasty

The Reign of Napoleon (cont. ) • Wanted to expand authority in Europe: Iberian

The Reign of Napoleon (cont. ) • Wanted to expand authority in Europe: Iberian and Italian peninsula, Netherlands, Austria, Prussia – Sent brothers to rule conquered lands, formed alliances with Austria, Prussia and Russia – 1812: Invasion of Russia = FAIL • 1814: Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia armies formed coalition and forced abdication – Monarchy restored, Napoleon exiled to Elba

The Reign of Napoleon (cont. ) • 1815: escaped and rebuilt army, ruled France

The Reign of Napoleon (cont. ) • 1815: escaped and rebuilt army, ruled France for 100 days – Defeated by Brits at Waterloo – -> exiled to St. Helena, died in 1821

Intro: The Influence of Revolution • Enlightenment ideals appealed to people throughout the Americas

Intro: The Influence of Revolution • Enlightenment ideals appealed to people throughout the Americas and Europe • Revolution in Haiti • Independence movements in Latin America • Social reform movements (esp. for slaves and women)

The Haitian Revolution • Western Hispaniola = Saint Domingue – sugar, coffee, cotton plantations

The Haitian Revolution • Western Hispaniola = Saint Domingue – sugar, coffee, cotton plantations • Society: white colonials (administrators, plantation owners, lower class), gens de couleur – mulattoes and blacks (artisans, servants, overseers, land/slave owners), and slaves – mulattoes and blacks (terrible conditions, high mortality, maroon communities)

The Haitian Revolution (cont. ) • Issues: gens de couleur (who had fought in

The Haitian Revolution (cont. ) • Issues: gens de couleur (who had fought in Am. Rev. ) wanted equality), with French Rev. -> self-gov’t (but no equality) -> civil war in 5/1791 • 8/1791: slave revolt • 1792 and 93: French, British, Spanish troops tried to restore order • Under Toussaint-Louverture, slaves overcame whites, gens de couleur, and foreign armies • 1801: T-L wrote constitution (equality and citizenship for all), didn’t declare independence • 1802: Napoleon sent troops to restore order; yellow fever killed many troops, allowing Haitians to win • 1803: independence

Wars of Independence in Latin America • Peninsulares ruled, but creoles resented pol and

Wars of Independence in Latin America • Peninsulares ruled, but creoles resented pol and econ control of Spain and Portugal • -> tax revolts and uprisings (didn’t really want equality for all, just wanted to take peninsulares place) • 1810 -1825: independence movements -> creole-dominated republics • Napoleon’s invasion of Iberia weakened royal authority

Mexican Independence • 1810: revolt of indigenous and mestizo peasants led by Hidalgo against

Mexican Independence • 1810: revolt of indigenous and mestizo peasants led by Hidalgo against colonial rule (invoked Virgin of Guadalupe and called for death of Spaniards) • 1821: Gen. Iturbide (Creole) declared independence and himself emperor • 1823: deposed by creole elites -> republic • 1825: southern Mexico (C. Am. ) declared independence as Central American Federation and as individual states in 1838

South American Independence • Led by creole elite Simon Bolivar (inspired by Enlightenment ideas

South American Independence • Led by creole elite Simon Bolivar (inspired by Enlightenment ideas of pop sov, republicanism) starting in 1811 • 1819: defeated Spanish in Colombia – Also campaigned in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, and Chile • By 1825: success throughout South America – Wanted to create U. S. -like confederation (e. g. , Gran Colombia), but too many regional difference

Brazilian Independence • Portuguese royal court fled to Brazil when Napoleon invaded • 1821:

Brazilian Independence • Portuguese royal court fled to Brazil when Napoleon invaded • 1821: king returned, leaving son Pedro as regent • 1822: pressure from creoles for independence -> Pedro agreed (became Emperor Pedro I)

Creole Dominance • Independence did not mean social change – Still stratified – Military

Creole Dominance • Independence did not mean social change – Still stratified – Military caudillos (with creole elite support) held military authority – Slavery continued – Wealth and authority of Roman Catholic Church continued – Repression of lower classes continued

Emergence of Ideologies • Theorists saw 2 general ideologies as result of revolutions •

Emergence of Ideologies • Theorists saw 2 general ideologies as result of revolutions • Conservatism: change should happen very gradually by general consensus • Liberalism: Change = progress, conservatives try to maintain elite classes and avoid dealing with inequality – – Pro-Enlightenment values (morality and prosperity) Pro-republicanism and written constitutions Concern with civil rights (maybe not pol and soc rights, tho) Post-Industrial Revolution: more dependence on gov’t for change and more concern with all rights (esp. suffrage)

Testing the Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Slavery • Different understandings of equality and freedom

Testing the Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Slavery • Different understandings of equality and freedom • Abolition movement began in 1700 s by freed slaves and Christian moralists • Momentum after the revolution: – 1807: Parliament voted to end slave trade (Wilberforce); others followed

Abolition of Slavery • Bigger challenge: ending slavery itself because of owners’ property rights

Abolition of Slavery • Bigger challenge: ending slavery itself because of owners’ property rights – In Haiti and South American, mostly ended with independence – In Mexico, ended by 1829 (to stop Americans form migrating) – 1833: Parliament abolished and compensated owners (Wilberforce), others followed • Freedom without equality: freed slaves rights were severely limited (no suffrage, subordination, low paying jobs, few owned land)

Testing the Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Women’s Rights • Most philosophes held conservative views

Testing the Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Women’s Rights • Most philosophes held conservative views of women’s rights • Women’s rights movement: wanted equal access to education, professional occupations, suffrage, no absolutism in government or family • 1700 s: Britain, France, North America: M. Wollstonecraft – access to education • Late 1700 s: held important roles in revolution – Gained, but then lost rights in French Rev. • mid-1800 s: grew alongside abolition movement – Stanton organized conference in Seneca, NY demanding equality with men • Limited success, esp. in education

Intro: The Consolidation of National States in Europe • Revolutions inspired citizens to develop

Intro: The Consolidation of National States in Europe • Revolutions inspired citizens to develop national identities • Leads to nationalism, which can be used by political leaders

Nations and Nationalism • Previously, identity was based on family, clan, city, region, religion

Nations and Nationalism • Previously, identity was based on family, clan, city, region, religion • 1800 s: national identity (based on language, customs, values, history, sometime religion) – -> nationalism: political loyalty, belief in common destiny and interests, set territory, promoted by gov’t (sometimes thru conflict with “others”) – - showing distinctiveness through history, the arts = volksgeist (e. g. , brothers Grimm stories)

Political Nationalism • 1800 s: nationalism became more political than cultural • Focus on

Political Nationalism • 1800 s: nationalism became more political than cultural • Focus on increasing loyalty and solidarity, esp. among minorities or when under foreign rule -> tried to establish independent states and sometimes created conflict with other groups – E. g. , Jews: nationalists encouraged distrust of minorities -> anti-semitism (e. g. , pogroms) -> some migrated elsewhere (W. Europe/N. A. ) and some started Zionist movement (formation of Jewish state in Palestine)

The Emergence of National Communities • Encouraged by French revolutions and subsequent wars and

The Emergence of National Communities • Encouraged by French revolutions and subsequent wars and invasions-> patriotism with flags, anthem, etc. => national identity • Congress of Vienna (1814 -15): meeting of leaders of countries who had defeated Napoleon to restore order – Dismantled French empire, sovereignty to royal families, balance of power, suppress national identity in Austrian empire – Limited success: balance of power until WWI, censorship and spies to suppress revolutions, but couldn’t suppress formation of national identities and ideas of pop sov

Nationalist Rebellions • 1820 s-40 s: wave of rebellions – 1821 -30: Greeks gained

Nationalist Rebellions • 1820 s-40 s: wave of rebellions – 1821 -30: Greeks gained independence (with help) from Ottomans – 1830: France, Spain, Portugal, German states, Belgium, Italy, Poland – wanted constitutional gov’t based on pop sov, or independence • Largely unsuccessful – 1848: brought down French monarchy, threatened Austrian empire, plus uprisings in Italy, Prussia, and German states – 1849: rebellions put down, but ideas remained

The Unification of Italy • Disunited since fall of Roman Empire -> regional kingdoms,

The Unification of Italy • Disunited since fall of Roman Empire -> regional kingdoms, citystates, ecclesiastical states • With Congress of Vienna, Austria controlled north and Spain controlled south • Increasing nationalism -> call for independence • Di Cavor (prime minister of K. of Piedmont and Sardinia) united with nationalists – With France, kicked Austria out in 1859 • Garibaldi led red shirts in south conquering Sicily and southern Italy – Gave south to King of Piedmont and Sardinia -> Kingdom of Italy (continued to absorb more territory)

The Unification of Germany • Previously, semi-autonomous princes ruled under Holy Roman Emperor •

The Unification of Germany • Previously, semi-autonomous princes ruled under Holy Roman Emperor • Otto von Bismarck (Prime Minister of Prussia): “realpolitik”, reformed and expanded army – Provoked 3 wars (with Denmark, France, and Austria) and won -> increased nationalism – 1871: Prussian king proclaimed himself emperor of the 2 nd Reich (of all German-speaking people outside of Austria and Switzerland)

Unifications of Italy and Germany • In both cases, pol, diplomatic, and mil leadership

Unifications of Italy and Germany • In both cases, pol, diplomatic, and mil leadership combined with nationalism = lots of potential – National identities developed: flags, anthems, holidays – Also, took national censuses, schools, army recruitment • -> nation-state became principal form of political organization (and still is)