MOTIVATION AND EMOTION CHAPTER 9 MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES AND
- Slides: 50
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION CHAPTER 9
MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES AND CONCEPTS • Motives are the needs, wants, interests, & desires that propel people in certain directions. • Motivation involves goal-directed behavior
DRIVE THEORIES • Homeostasis = a state of physiological equilibrium or stability • Drive = hypothetical, internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension • Source: Micro. Soft Clip. Art
DRIVE THEORY • Drive Theory = when individuals experience a drive, they’re motivated to pursue actions that will lead to drive reduction. • emphasize how internal states of tension push people in certain directions. • Source Micro. Soft Clip. Art
INCENTIVE THEORIES • Incentive = an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior • emphasize environmental factors and downplay the biological bases of human motivation.
EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES • explain motives in terms of their adaptive value. • Humans display an enormous diversity of biological and social motives.
THE MOTIVATION OF HUNGER & EATING
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE REGULATION OF HUNGER • Contemporary theories of hunger focus more on neural circuits than on anatomical centers in the brain.
DIGESTIVE AND HORMONAL REGULATION • The stomach can send two types of signals to the brain that can inhibit eating. • Vagus nerve carries information about the stretching of the stomach walls that indicates when the stomach is full.
DIGESTIVE AND HORMONAL REGULATION • Hormonal regulation of hunger depends primarily on: • Insulin = a hormone secreted by the pancreas, must be present for cells to extract glucose from the blood. • Ghrelin = causes stomach contractions & promotes hunger • CCK = CCK that delivers satiety signals to the brain, thus reducing hunger • Leptin = contributes to the long-term regulation of hunger
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN THE REGULATION OF HUNGER • Organisms consume more food when • it is palatable • more is available • when there is greater variety • in the presence of others • Environmental cues, such as advertisements for food, can also promote eating.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN THE REGULATION OF HUNGER • Cultural traditions also shape food preferences. • Learning processes, such as classical conditioning & observational learning, exert a great deal of influence over what people eat.
SEXUAL MOTIVATION & BEHAVIOR
4 PHASES OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE • 1) Excitement = level of physical arousal usually escalates rapidly • muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate, & blood pressure increase quickly. • Vasocongestion—engorgement of blood vessels— • penile erection & swollen testes in males. • swelling & hardening of the clitoris, expansion of the vaginal lips, & vaginal lubrication in females.
4 PHASES OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE • 2) Plateau = physiological arousal usually continues to build, but at a much slower pace. • 3) Orgasm = when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity & is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. • 4) Resolution = physiological changes produced by sexual arousal gradually subside
EVOLUTIONARY ANALYSES OF HUMAN SEXUAL MOTIVATION • Males tend to think about & initiate sex more than females do, • have more sexual partners • more interest in casual sex than females.
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATE PREFERENCES • Gender differences in mating preferences appear to largely transcend cultural boundaries. • Males emphasize potential partners’ youthfulness & attractiveness • Females emphasize potential partners’ status, ambition, & financial prospects.
EVOLUTIONARY ANALYSES OF HUMAN SEXUAL MOTIVATION • Parental investment = what each sex has to invest–in terms of time, energy, survival risk, & forgone opportunities (to pursue other goals)—to produce and nurture offspring.
THE MYSTERY OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION • Kinsey viewed heterosexuality & homosexuality not as an all-or-none distinction but as end points on a continuum.
THE MYSTERY OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION • Data on the prevalence of homosexuality suggest that 5%-8% of the population may be gay. • Although most gays can trace their homosexual leanings back to early childhood, research has not supported Freudian or behavioral theories of sexual orientation.
THE MYSTERY OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION • Research in the 90’s found • 52% of the participants’ identical twins were gay, • 22% of their fraternal twins were gay • 11% of their adoptive brothers were gay. • Given that identical twins share more genetic overlap than fraternal twins, who share more genes than unrelated adoptive siblings, these results suggest that there is a genetic predisposition to homosexuality.
• Asexual – no sex drive • Queer – no specific sexual orientation or gender identity.
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE IS THE NEED TO MASTER DIFFICULT CHALLENGES, TO OUTPERFORM OTHERS, AND TO MEET HIGH STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE ACHIEVEMENT: IN SEARCH OF EXCELLENCE
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT • Achievement, 1 st investigated by Mc. Clelland, involves the need to master difficult challenges & to excel, especially in competition with others. • The need for achievement is usually measured with a projective test called the TAT • asks people to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal personal motives.
TAT VIDEO
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT • People who are relatively high in the need for achievement work harder and more persistently than others. • They delay gratification well and pursue competitive careers. • However, in choosing challenges they often select tasks of intermediate difficulty.
SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT BEHAVIOR • Atkinson theorizes = the tendency to pursue achievement in a particular situation depends on: • The strength of one’s motivation to achieve success, which is viewed as a stable aspect of personality. • One’s estimate of the probability of success for the task at hand; such estimates vary from task to task. • The incentive value of success, which depends on the tangible & intangible rewards for success on the specific task.
SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT BEHAVIOR • The pursuit of achievement tends to increase when the probability & incentive value of success are high. • The joint influence of these factors may explain why people high in achievement need tend to prefer challenges of intermediate difficulty.
THE ELEMENTS OF EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE
THE COGNITIVE COMPONENT • The cognitive component of emotion involves subjective feelings that have an evaluative aspect. • Emotions can be automatic & intense, and they are not easy to control.
THE COGNITIVE COMPONENT • People’s cognitive appraisals of events in their lives determine the emotions they experience. • Research on affective forecasting shows that people are surprisingly bad at predicting the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to events.
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENT • The most readily apparent aspect of the physiological component of emotion is autonomic arousal. • emotions are accompanied by physical arousal • This arousal is the basis for the lie detector, which is really an emotion detector.
EMOTION & AUTONOMIC AROUSAL
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENT • Polygraphs are not all that accurate in assessing individuals’ veracity. • The amygdala appears to be the hub of an emotionprocessing system in the brain that modulates conditioned fears.
THE BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT • At the behavioral level, emotions are expressed through body language, with facial expressions being particularly prominent. • People can identify six fundamental emotions from facial expressions. • Ekman and Friesen have found considerable crosscultural agreement in the identification of emotions based on facial expressions.
THE BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT • Advocates of the facial-feedback hypothesis maintain that facial muscles send signals that help the brain recognize the emotion one is experiencing. • The facial expressions that go with various emotions may be largely innate
CULTURE & THE ELEMENTS OF EMOTION • Cross-cultural similarities have been found in the facial expressions associated with • specific emotions • cognitive appraisals that provoke emotions
CULTURE & THE ELEMENTS OF EMOTION • Some basic categories of emotion that are universally understood in Western cultures appear to go unrecognized in some non-Western cultures. • Display rules, which are norms that govern how much people show their emotions, vary across cultures.
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
THEORIES OF EMOTION
JAMES-LANGE THEORY • Common sense suggests that emotions cause autonomic arousal, but the James-Lange theory asserted that emotion results from one’s perception of autonomic arousal. • different patterns of autonomic activation lead to the experience of different emotions. • Source: Microsoft Clip. Art
CANNON-BARD THEORY • Cannon-Bard theory = people do not infer their emotions from patterns of autonomic activation and that emotions originate in subcortical areas of the brain.
SCHACHTER’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY • Schachter’s two-factor theory = people infer emotion from arousal & then label emotion in accordance with cognitive explanation for arousal.
EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES OF EMOTION • Evolutionary theories of emotion maintain that emotions are innate reactions that require little cognitive interpretation. • Evolutionary theorists seek to identify a small number of innate, fundamental emotions.
THEORIES OF EMOTION.
EXPLORING THE INGREDIENTS OF HAPPINESS • Factors that do not Predict Happiness • • Money Age Parenthood Intelligence and Attractiveness • Moderately Good Predictors of Happiness • Health • Social Activity
EXPLORING THE INGREDIENTS OF HAPPINESS • Strong Predictors of Happiness • Love and Marriage. • Work • Genetics and Personality
THE ANATOMY OF AN ARGUMENT • argument = one or more premises that are used to provide support for a conclusion. • Premises = reasons that are presented to persuade someone that a conclusion is true or probably true. • Assumptions = premises for which no proof or evidence is offered
COMMON FALLACIES • Irrelevant Reasons = Reasons cannot provide support for an argument unless they are relevant to the conclusion. • Circular Reasoning = premise & conclusion are simply restatements of each other • Slippery Slope = asserts that if you allow X to happen, things will spin out of control & far worse events will follow
COMMON FALLACIES • Weak Analogies = some analogies are weak or inappropriate because the similarity between A and B is superficial, minimal, or irrelevant to the issue at hand. • False Dichotomy = creates an either-or choice between two outcomes: the outcome advocated & some obviously horrible outcome that any sensible person would want to avoid.
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