Chapter 13 Motivation and Emotion Chapter 13 of

Chapter 13: Motivation and Emotion

Chapter 13 of Psychology: The Science of Behavior, Carlson & Buskit 5 th p 412 -44 Prepared and presented by Jeremy Cox Wednesday, October 18, 2000

Introduction Page 414 Olds and Milner 1973 • Investigating “Aversive Effects” of electrode stimulation in brain • Misplaced electrode had rewarding effects – more like addictive effects • Nucleus accumbens?

Introduction Page 415 Humans – inconsistent behavior • Behavior not viewed as inconsistent when motivation taken into account • Motivation affects a) nature of behavior b) strength of behavior c) persistence of behavior

Page 415 Introduction Motivation is a) the internal representation of operant conditioning b) the internal drive to fulfill needs (or to respond to “deprivation”).

What is Motivation? Page 415 Definitions 1. Motivation cannot be separated from reinforcement and punishment. 2. Motivation IS the drive to perform behaviors a) to gain or keep from losing a reinforcer b) to avoid or escape a punisher

What is Motivation? Page 415 Biological Needs • Need – when a behavior is required to correct/return/maintain conditions towards homeostatis • Homeostasis – a review; it is a regulatory system

What is Motivation? Biological Needs • Needs –are powerful motivators – Air – Food – Water – Nutrients – Protection from temperature extremes Page 415

What is Motivation? Regulatory systems 4. Four parts to regulatory systems a) System variable b) Set point (optimum value) c) Detector d) Correctional mechanism(s) Page 415

What is Motivation? Page 415

What is Motivation? Page 416 Negative Feedback • feedback (from increase) triggers a lowering of response; this is regulatory • contrast to positive feedback, where increase triggers an increase response (like an immune response) • drive – a condition that energizes an organism’s behavior

What is Motivation? Page 416 drive reduction hypothesis • d. r. h – having needs is unpleasant, drives organism to behavior (Figure 13. 2) • d. r. h. criticized for two reasons a) drive is difficult to measure b) many behaviors increase drive c) also, drive can not be negative (no avoidance)

What is Motivation? Page 417

What is Motivation? Page 416 -7 Physiology of Reinforcement • This system releases dopamine. All reinforcing stimuli known trigger the release of dopamine. (See Figure 13. 4)

What is Motivation? Page 418

What is Motivation? Page 417 Optimum Level Theory 1. Idea that drive reflects a return to an “optimum level of arousal” a) Thus, increases and decreases in drive are both accommodated by this theory b) This accommodates the idea of satiety (or negative drive) 2. Arousal and drive are still hard to measure

What is Motivation? Page 418 Perseverance 1. perseverance – the tendency to perform a behavior when it is not being reinforced 2. conditioned reinforcement a) a behavior is said to be self-reinforcing b) similar to “work is its own reward” c) praise a child for writing nice letters

What is Motivation? Page 419 Learned Helplessness • Overmeier and Seligman (1967) – Poor dog trapped, can not escape shock, learns not to try when untied • Maier and Seligman (1976) – learn behavior has no effect on environment • A failure to persist?

What is Motivation? Learned Helplessness • Learned helplessness is important as it is associated with depression and lower motivation in general • Critics: – This is a failure to perceive situation has changed, not a “learned helplessness” (Organism does not realize it is no longer helpless. ) Page 419

Eating – Important Behavior • Eating is very important, often very pleasurable. Powerful motivator. – Starving people often kill for food. • Large amounts of animal behavior is dedicated to eating – strong evolutionary force Page 420

Eating Page 420 What starts a meal(feeding)? • We would expect eating to be a regulatory behavior triggered by low nutrient levels • There is much more than that! • The same factors that start a meal are not the same as those that end it. • Nor are hunger and satiety the only two factors.

Eating Page 420 Start Meal: Cultural & Social Factors • Quantity & timing influenced by habit • Hunger will wax and wane according to schedule (even with missed meals!) • What is considered food is cultural • Environmental behavior triggers (cues)

Eating Page 421 Start Meal: Physiological Factors a) Hunger is not related to how much one has eaten b) Mayer, 1955: Glucostatic hypothesis 1) Neurons in brain (glucostats) trigger hunger based on blood glucose levels. 2) Would be responsible for eating (corrective behavior)

Eating Page 421 Start Meal: Physiological Factors Turns out there are two nutrient detectors: glucose, fatty acids 1) Glucose detectors in liver 2) Fatty acid detectors throughout the body

Page 421 Eating What Stops a Meal? • It takes longer to absorb nutrients than the time to feel full – Thus, other mechanisms must account for satiety than glucostats and fatty acidstats

Eating Page 421 -2 Stop a Meal: Short Term Controls • short term controls (control stop feeding/end a meal) a) a full stomach (satiety) main trigger to stop b) humans often learn to ignore biological signals c) stomach can sense both its volume and the “quality” (chemical nature) of its contents

Eating Page 422 Stop a Meal: Long Term Controls • long term controls (control overall eating behaviors) a) exercise will lower nutrients, trigger more eating b) eating more nutritious food will result in eating less c) ob mouse (a mutant, monstrously obese mouse)

Eating Page 423

Page 423 Eating Ob Mouse • ob mouse (the monstrously obese mouse), lacks ability to produce leptin 1) leptin identified as protein messenger that fat cells secrete to signal how “fat” they are. 2) high leptin decreses hunger (and feeding) and raises metabolism. 3) leptin appears to act in the brain

Page 423 Eating Obesity • Human problem not as simple a gene in mice • Obesity is not a symptom of depression, impulse, or any other psychological factor • Overall, obesity is a metabolic disorder, not an eating disorder.

Page 424 Eating Obesity • A slow metabolism is an evolutionary advantage, but results in obesity with an unlimited food supply • Diets actually INTENSIFY obesity – body learns to better conserve food – the “yo-yo” effect • Obesity correlates with leptin levels • speculation that one cause of obesity is a deficient or inefficient leptin receptor

Page 420 Eating Bulimia • Bulimia – eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging (by vomiting or laxatives) – Associated with depression and guilt

Page 424 Eating Anorexia Nervosa • Anorexia – eating disorder where fear of being obese decreases eating behavior – Most common victims are young women – Although feeding behavior decreases, food related behaviors such as baking and collecting recipes often increase

Page 425 Eating Anorexia Nervosa • 1 in 30 victims die of disorder • Women often get osteoporosis and bone damage as a side effect • Cease to menstruate • Loss of brain tissue

Page 425 Eating Anorexia Nervosa • Causes – Genetic factors – Social factors (pressure for beauty, unattainable ideals, self-esteem*) – Progesterone and estradiol can modulate feeding. Not demonstrated in humans, but suspect as contributing factor female susceptibility

Sexual Behavior Page 426 Sexual Behavior • Sex is not a biological need • Sex is a powerful motivator • Behaviors based on some instinct, primarily experience.

Sexual Behavior Page 426 Effects of Hormones on Behavior • Hormones regulate sexual processes in body (such as sperm production) • Hormones DO NOT cause behavior, they modulate motivation

Sexual Behavior Page 426 Effects of Androgens • Organizational effect – a hormone acts prenatally to alter the development of the organism • Activational effect – hormones activate sex organs and brain circuits that have already developed

Sexual Behavior Page 427 Testosterone • Testosterone is responsible for libido as well as its intensity • Testosterone does not determine “object of affection” (homosexuality, etc. ) • Environment can trigger changes in testosterone as can anticipation

Sexual Behavior Page 427 Clinchers – Final Notes • In humans, sexual activity is not limited to coitus. (Caressing, kissing, etc. still count. Foreplay and making out are examples. ) • Woman are affected by Testosterone, increases libido and pleasure of sexual experience

Sexual Behavior Page 427 Effects of Progesterone and Estrogen • All mammals have an estrous cycle • Except primates have a menstrual cycle • Estrous females will only allow copulation during high levels of estradiol and progesterone, the female may even pursue (i. e. attempt to “seduce”) mates

Sexual Behavior Page 427 Effects of Progesterone and Estrogen • Primate females are unique in receptivity to intercourse during anytime during menstrual cycle. – (This has been suggested as an evolutionary source of monogamy. ) • Estrous female’s sexual motivation controlled by progesterone and estradiol, weak support for this in humans*

Sexual Orientation Page 427 Facts about Human Orientations • Sexual orientation caused by – Prenatal factors – Genetic factors • Humans only species to engage in exclusive homosexuality (in addition, # homosexuals > # bisexuals)

Sexual Orientation Page 428 Psychological Theories • Psychoanalysis: gave the idea that homosexuality is a result of home environment (particularly emotional detachment to same sex parent. ) – This has not scientific basis, though there is much psychoanalysis literature on the subject • Experiments with homosexuality concerning maladaptiveness are plagued with the social confound that homosexuals are persecuted

Sexual Orientation Page 428 Bell, Weinberg, and Hammersmith • Conducted a survey study in San Francisco, with a large homosexual population – (It is odd that the text did not suggest that the population of San Francisco, being a homosexual community, may not be representative of all homosexuals, or further that they are biased based on a dogmatic belief structure. ) • The survey found three important findings

Sexual Orientation Page 428 Bell, Weinberg, and Hammersmith Findings 1) Homosexuality seems to be predetermined to adolescence. 2) Homosexual adolescents find heterosexual contact unrewarding. 3) Strong relationship exists between gender nonconformity in childhood and adult homosexuality.

Sexual Orientation Page 428 -9 Biological Roots of Homosexuality • Prenatal development (hormone organizational effects) • Brain regions (in hypothalamus) seem to be affected differently • Genetics and Homosexuality in twins – Identical twins, 52% concordance rate – Fraternal twins, 22% concordance rate

Sexual Orientation Page 429 androgen insensitivity syndrome • Genetic males insensitive to androgen develop (prenatally) female genitalia (and organize brains almost the same as females. ) • If puberty is induced with hormone supplements, these “women” seem to be in all respects normal, save lacking ovaries. • Strong support for organizational effects

Aggressive Behavior Page 430 Aggression a human problem • Violence and cruelty are common human behaviors • Some factors contributing to aggression: – childhood – violence in media – Peer pressure – Hormones – Drugs – Brain malfunction/abnormality

Aggressive Behavior Page 430 Ethological Studies • Ethologists – zoologists who study behavior – give grounds for utility of “harmful” aggressive behaviors for the survival of the species • Intraspecific aggression – aggression w/in a species a) Disperses animals b) Favors healthier, more vigorous animals

Aggressive Behavior Page 430 Ethology: Threat & Appeasement • Threat gesture – threat precedes actual violence • Appeasement gesture – submission made to avoid violence • Resolves conflict without violence • Seen in humans as well – at the bar, we probably would not look a big burly guy in the eyes

Aggressive Behavior Page 430 Hormones and Aggression • Testosterone has organizational and activational effects on aggression in most mammals and birds (just as in sexual motivation) • Especially in human males, testosterone influences aggression. Evidence ties sexual violence to testosterone

Aggressive Behavior Page 431 Androgens cause aggression? • Studies connect anabolic steroids to increased aggressiveness. • A problem in establishing causation is violence correlates with hormone release • Some evidence supports social rank modulates testosterone levels.

Aggressive Behavior Page 431 Environmental Variables • Imitation – Children often imitate aggression of parents – Child abusers are often victims of child abuse themselves – Entertainment depicts violence as a glorified solution (p 432)

Aggressive Behavior Page 432 TV and Violence • For boys, a weak correlation was found between violent TV programming and violent behavior. • A stronger, though weak, correlation was found between preference for violent programming at age 8 and violent behavior. • Girls show no effect.

Aggressive Behavior Page 432 TV and Violence • It would appear the shaping from violent programming takes place pre-adolescence • Denying favorite programs can cause more violence than permitting them (if permitting them causes violence at all)

The Nature of Emotion Page 432 Emotions in Psychobabble context • Emotions are more than just feelings. • Emotions are a) evoked by certain situations b) associated with approach/avoidance behavior c) accompanied by expression • emotion is generally a display of feelings that are evoked by important events that happen to us

The Nature of Emotion Page 433 Psychological Definition of Emotion • emotion – a relatively brief display of a feeling made in response to environmental events having motivational significance or to memories of such events A> emotions have motivational relevance B> emotions are the consequence of events that motivate us, and the mechanism of motication

The Nature of Emotion Page 433 Emotions as Response Patterns • We will now discuss overt emotional behavior, communicative is later. • ULTIMATE role of emotions is to provide patterns of behavior appropriate to particular situations (i. e. play motivational role) • All emotional responses have three components: a) Behavioral – muscular movements b) Autonomic – autonomic nervous system provide energy mobilization c) Hormonal – enforce the autonomic response

The Nature of Emotion Page 433 Conditioned Emotional Responses • (CER)– a classically conditioned response that triggers an emotional response CS = event that will trigger CER US = perception (danger, etc) that elicits response CR = UR = emotional response

The Nature of Emotion Page 433 CER extinction • learn to avoid contact or minimize an aversive stimulus, the nonspecific “emotional responses” (CR) will disappear (i. e. an autonomic response will diminish. ) • this is a form of extinction, US disappears because organism is in control

The Nature of Emotion Page 433 Coping Response • A behavior that reduces autonomic response is a coping response. It effectively deals with the situation, eliminating the “need” for arousal

The Nature of Emotion Page 434 Amygdala (say it 3 x fast) • Amygdala plays an important role in the expression of CER – The amygdala is a focal point between sensory systems and behavioral, autonomic, and hormonal components of CER • Animals without amygdala show no signs of fear and are more tame • Stimulation of amygdala produces agitation, fear, and (prolonged) gastric ulcers => suggest amygdala plays role in stress (Chapter 16)

The Nature of Emotion Page 434 Social Judgments: Orbitofrontal Cortex • Many emotions arise from complex perceptions; the right hemisphere plays an important role. • Oribitofrontal cortex, at the base of the frontal lobes, receives information from the sensory system and frontal lobes that control behavior. It also communicates with limbic system, particularly the amygdala.

The Nature of Emotion Page 434 -5 Social Judgments: Orbitofrontal Cortex • Damage to this region decreases inhibitions and self-concern, essential removal of emotional response, including no more suffering due to pain • Orbitofrontal cortex’s role is to “translate [cognitive] judgments into appropriate feelings and behaviors. ”

The Nature of Emotion Page 435 “A little lobotomy never hurt nobody” • Moniz’s prefrontal lobotomy. Reasoning: – No impairment came from removal of frontal lobes – it relieves emotional anguish – make a good treatment for the emotionally ill • This is no longer done • Personality impairment does occur – subjects become irresponsible, childish, lose ability to carry out plans, and are unemployable.

The Nature of Emotion Page 436 Polygraphers and detecting lies • Polygraph measures heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and skin conductance (sweating) • Polygraphy is susceptible to suggestion; if told a camera is stolen, they will not be able to discern that it was not stolen.

The Nature of Emotion Page 436 Polygraphers’ methods: not exactly rocket science • Control question asks subjects to tell deliberate lies for comparison; it is important to have subject’s faith in test. 1) The problem with this test is that questions can evoke emotional responses because they are relevant (say about a criminal activity), not because of a lie; i. e. stress is mistaken for a lie 2) 50% false positive rate (for lying!)

The Nature of Emotion Page 436 -7 Polygraphers’ methods: not exactly rocket science • Guilty knowledge seems to be more reliable; it presents the subject with multiple choice questions; if one has knowledge, will be more nervous when the true choice is read aloud. 1) This is susceptible to poor questions 2) 90% success rate and 3 -4% false positives

Emotions: Expression and Recognition Page 437 -8 Emotions that communicate • Communicating emotions – Evolutionary perspective: expressions tell others our feelings and likely actions • Social meaning – Emotional expression is increased in presence of others – Emotional expression is aimed at expressing towards others

Emotions: Expression and Recognition Page 438 Role of Cognition • Emotions are provoked by stimuli and can also be triggered by cognition. • Our expression of emotion seems to parallel other animals, but the scope of our stimuli that can evoke emotions is greater • Only humans are affected by context (piano player example)

Are Emotional Expressions Innate? Page 438 -40 Darwin: Evolution of Expression • Human expressions evolved from simpler expressions that we see in animals • Blind and sighted children – identical expression • Blind adults show less expression because it is not a part of their daily lives (to see it) • Compare emotional expression across isolated people groups • Ekman & Friesen South Fore Tribe

Are Emotional Expressions Innate? Page 439

Are Emotional Expressions Innate? Page 440

Are Emotional Expressions Innate? Page 440 Display Rules • We may try to hide or exaggerate our expression of emotions a) Masking is attempting to hide an emotion b) Modulation is an attempt to exaggerate or minimize emotion c) Simulation is to pretend to have an emotion (to lie) • Display rules are the social norms that tell us when, how, and whether or not we express emotion

Are Emotional Expressions Innate? Page 441 Display Rules • Sex differences in emotional expression are learned; infants show no difference • “Weird” display rule – Japanese are discouraged from public expression • leakage – a sign that an emotion is being masked (usually, a powerful emotion can not be completely “covered up”) • We are better are controlling leakage at facial muscles than in body language

Feelings of Emotion Page 442 Two kinds of emotions 1. the patterns of behavioral, autonomic, and hormonal responses 2. emotional expression between people • Unanswered question remains: are feelings reactions to emotions, or are emotional reactions symptoms of feelings?

Feelings of Emotion Page 442 James-Lange theory • William James, Carl Lange • They theorize that emotional reactions change the body state, then the body state triggers the feeling • James-Lange is strict autonomic response first

Feelings of Emotion Page 442 -3 James-Lange criticism • This seems counter-intuitive – It is well-pointed out that sometimes we realize we are trembling, then realize we are afraid, it is equally pointed out that sometimes anger comes from cognition (as mentioned above) • In short, James-Lange seems to only oversimplify

Feelings of Emotion Page 443 James-Lange support • Hohman discovers that spinal cord damage (which lowers total feedback from body) affects the intensity of feelings. • Strong support for the James-Lange theory. • One can criticize that perhaps body feedback only contributes to perception of intensity, not the emotion

Feelings of Emotion Page 443

Is Cognition Essential for Emotion? Page 443 Autonomic vs cognitive cause • Both play a role in the occurrence and expression of emotions • Problematic discussion b/c terminology is not set (each side will use same terminology with different meaning. ) – E. g. some argue whether cognition is conscious or not

Feelings of Emotion Page 444 Schacter • Schacter (1964) proposes that emotions arise from (both) cognition and interpretation of physiological states. • Schacter and Singer (1962) demonstrate physical states are sometimes interpreted. • Nisbett and Schacter (1966) show that cognition can simulate drugs’ effects on emotions via suggestion.

Feelings of Emotion Page 444 There you have it • We have learned that emotions provide motivation, from both cognitive and autonomic sources • Sexual Orientation seems to come from Genetic and Prenatal causes • Sex is not a need, but a powerful motivator • Testosterone is the libido hormone (Oh, behave!)

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