Introductory Psychology Concepts CHAPTER 8 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

Introductory Psychology Concepts CHAPTER 8 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION Professor Veronica Emilia Nuzzolo © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation: The process by which activities are started, directed, and sustained to fulfill both physical and psychological needs. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -2

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation Instinct Approach to Motivation: Actions Motivated By Innate Behavior Patterns Instincts: Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned. • People and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival. • Instincts provide the energy that channels behavior in appropriate directions. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -3

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation Drive Reduction Theories: Hunger Motivates Action To Find Food To Reduce Hunger. Drive: motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need. • Primary drives: Related to biological needs of the body, or the species as a whole (hunger, thirst, sleep, sex). • Secondary drives: Behavior fulfills no obvious biological need (people have strong needs to achieve academically and professionally). © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -4

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation Homeostasis: Underlying Primary Drives and the Body’s Tendency to Maintain a Steady Internal State. With Homeostasis, a series of feedback loops is used to regulate body functions, similar to the way a thermostat controls the air temperature in a room. When body temperature becomes too high, the blood vessels expand, and we sweat as our bodies try to lower the temperature. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -5

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation Types of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy Before more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied (Maslow, 1987). Motivation progresses up the pyramid from the broadest, most fundamental biological needs to higher-order needs. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -6

Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements that can influence behavior. Components of emotion Emotions are triggered by external or internal eliciting stimuli. Physiological responses Eliciting stimuli Cognitive appraisal Instrumental behaviors Expressive behaviors © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -7

Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that can influence behavior. Components of emotion Emotional responses result from our appraisal of these stimuli. Physiological responses Eliciting stimuli Cognitive appraisal Instrumental behaviors Expressive behaviors © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -8

Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that can influence behavior. Components of emotion Our bodies respond physiologically to our appraisals. Physiological responses Eliciting stimuli Cognitive appraisal Instrumental behaviors Expressive behaviors © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -9

Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior. Components of emotion Emotions include behavior tendencies: + Expressive (smiling, crying) + Instrumental (fighting back in self-defense) Physiological responses Eliciting stimuli Cognitive appraisal Instrumental behaviors Expressive behaviors © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -10

Theories of Emotion The James-Lange Theory Our bodily reactions determine the subjective emotion we experience. The Cannon-Bard Theory The subjective experiences of emotion and physiological arousal do not cause one another, but instead are independent responses to an emotionarousing situation. The Schacter-Singer Theory Emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues. Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory The intensity of physiological arousal tells us how strongly we are feeling something, but situational cues give us the information we need to label the arousal and tell ourselves what we are feeling. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -11

Facial Feedback Hypothesis According to the facial feedback hypothesis, feedback from the facial muscles to the brain plays a key role in determining the nature and intensity of emotions (Adelmann & Zajonc, 1989). that we experience. Holding a pencil in the teeth activates the muscles used in smiling, and thus evokes more pleasant feelings than holding the pencil in one’s lips. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -12

Anorexia Nervosa Weight loss of at least 15% of ideal weight. A severe eating disorder in which people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance are unusual. Despite looking skeleton-like to others, people with the weight disorder anorexia nervosa see themselves as overweight. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -13

Bulimia Nervosa The cycle of bingeing and purging. A disorder in which a person binges on incredibly large portions of food and later may attempt to purge the food through vomiting or the use of laxatives. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -14

Causes of Eating Disorders Biological Factors A chemical imbalance in the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, perhaps brought on by genetic factors. Societal Pressures Society’s valuation of slenderness and the parallel notion that obesity is undesirable. Mood Disorders (Bulimic) food cravings are often triggered by stress and negative mood, bingeing temporarily reduces a negative emotional state. Family Environment Disorder resulting from overly demanding parents or other family problems. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -15

Treatment of Eating Disorders Treatment is difficult and may take years, but with professional help, about half of all anorexic and bulimic patients fully recover. (Becker et al. , 1999; Westin et al. , 20004) Others are able to eat more normally but maintain their preoccupation with food and weight. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -16

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality: Physical and Psychological Perspective Sex is often described as a biological reproductive motive, yet people usually do not have sex to conceive children. • • • Evolution shaped our physiology so that sex feels good Periodically, having sex for pleasure leads to childbirth, through which our genes are passed on. People engage in sex to: Reproduce Obtain and give sensual pleasure Express love Foster intimacy Fulfill one’s “duty” Conform to peer pressure, and a host of other reasons. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -17

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Female Sex Organs Ovary Uterus Cervix Bladder Pubic bone Vagina Urethra Anus Clitoris Female © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -18

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Male Sex Organs Large intestine Bladder Seminal vesicle Pubic bone Ejaculatory duct Vas deferens Prostate Urethra Anus Penis Testis Scrotum Glans Male © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -19

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Psychological Side of Sexuality • • Sexual arousal typically begins with desire and a sexual stimulus that is perceived positively (Walen & Roth, 1987). Sexual fantasy is an important component of many people’s lives, studies indicate that men sexually fantasize more than women (Martinez & Raul, 2000). Psychological factors can not only trigger sexual arousal but also inhibit it. Stress, fatigue, and anger at one’s partner can lead to temporary arousal problems. Sexual dysfunction refers to chronic, impaired sexual functioning that distresses a person. It may result from injuries, diseases, and drug effects, some causes are psychological. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -20

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Psychological Side of Sexuality • • Gender: The psychological experience of being male of female. Gender Roles: Typical behaviors which people learn that belong to males and females as dictated by their cultural norms. Gender Typing: Process by which people learn appropriate gender roles within their cultures. Gender Identity: One’s view of oneself as male of female. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -21

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Gender: Perception of Being Male or Female Although there is a good deal of overlap between the concepts of sex and gender, they are not the same. • • Sex typically refers to sexual anatomy and sexual behavior Gender refers to the sense of maleness or femaleness related to our membership in a given society. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -22

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Gender: Psychological Aspect of Being Male or Female Men and women differ in how positively they view their own abilities and how they estimate the probability of their future success. • • • In general, women evaluate themselves more harshly than men do. Content of men’s and women’s speech differs, with women’s speech being more precise. Speech patterns lead others to view them as more tentative, less assertive. Women’s and men’s nonverbal behavior differs in several significant respects. In conversation with opposite sex, women look at their partner significantly more while listening than while speaking. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -23

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Gender Typing: Process in Which People Learn their Cultural Appropriate Gender Role Starting from the moment of birth, with blue blankets for boys and pink ones for girls, most parents and other adults provide environments that differ according to gender. • • Differences in environment and activity based on gender are described as socialization, the process by which an individual learns the rules and norms of appropriate behavior. According to Sandra Bem (1998), socialization produces a gender schema, a mental framework that organizes and guides a child’s understanding of information relevant to gender. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -24

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Gender Identity Gender identity: The sense of “femaleness” or “maleness” that becomes a central aspect of one’s personal identity. • • Most children develop a basic gender identity between the ages of 2 and 3 and can label themselves and others as being either a boy or a girl. Gender constancy is the understanding that being male or female is a permanent part of person, developing at age 6 or 7. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -25

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Gender Stereotyping As gender identity develops, children acquire sex-role stereotypes--beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors that are appropriate for boys and girls to possess. • • • Every group, including family and cultural groups, has norms for expected and accepted gender behavior. Parents, siblings, friends, the mass media, and other socializing agents convey these norms as we grow up. As we internalize these norms, they become part of our identity (Martin & Ruble, 2004). © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -26

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality Gender Stereotyping: Positive and Negative Aspects Stereotyping can be either negative or positive, but in either case stereotyping is inherently harmful for three reasons: § § § 1) Stereotypes reduce our ability to treat members of a gender as individuals. 2) Stereotypes lead to narrow expectations for gender behavior. 3) Stereotypes lead to faulty attributions, theory that people tend to look for explanations for specific behavior based on gender stereotypes. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -27

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender: Perception of Being Male or Female Although there is a good deal of overlap between the concepts of sex and gender, they are not the same. • • Sex typically refers to sexual anatomy and sexual behavior Gender refers to the sense of maleness or femaleness related to our membership in a given society. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -28

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender: Psychological Aspect of Being Male or Female Men and women differ in how positively they view their own abilities and how they estimate the probability of their future success. • • • In general, women evaluate themselves more harshly than men. Content of men’s and women’s speech differs, with women’s speech being more precise. Speech patterns lead others to view them as more tentative, less assertive. Women’s and men’s nonverbal behavior differs in several significant respects. In conversation with opposite sex, women look at their partner significantly more while listening than while speaking. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -29

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Typing: Process in Which People Learn their Cultural Appropriate Gender Role Starting from the moment of birth, with blue blankets for boys and pink ones for girls, most parents and other adults provide environments that differ in important respects according to gender. • Differences in environment and activity based on gender are described as socialization, the process by which an individual learns the rules and norms of appropriate behavior. • According to Sandra Bem (1998), socialization produces a gender schema, a mental framework that organizes and guides a child’s understanding of information relevant to gender. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -30

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Identity Gender identity is the sense of “femaleness” or “maleness” that becomes a central aspect of one’s personal identity. • • Most children develop a basic gender identity between the ages of 2 and 3 and can label themselves and others as being either a boy or a girl. Gender constancy is the understanding that being male or female is a permanent part of person, developing at age 6 or 7. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -31

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Stereotyping As gender identity develops, children acquire sex-role stereotypes; beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors that are appropriate for boys and girls to possess. • • • Every group, including family and cultural groups, has norms for expected and accepted gender behavior. Parents, siblings, friends, the mass media, and other socializing agents convey these norms as we grow up. As we internalize these norms, they become part of our identity (Martin & Ruble, 2004). © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -32

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Stereotyping: Positive and Negative Aspects Stereotyping can be either negative or positive, but in either case stereotyping is inherently harmful for three reasons: § § § 1) Stereotypes reduce our ability to treat members of a gender as an individual. 2) Stereotypes lead to narrow expectations for gender behavior. 3) Stereotypes lead to faulty attributions, theory that people tend to look for explanations for specific behavior based on gender stereotypes. © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -33

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Roles Culture’s Expectation: For Male and Female Behavior Gender-role socialization provides us with gender schemas, organized mental structures that contain our understanding of the attributes and behaviors that are appropriate and expected for males and females (Bem, 1981). © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -34

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Roles Theories of Children Learning Gender Roles Social-learning theory: • Gender differences are learned through a society’s division of labor and the social roles established for men and women. Gender schema theory: • • Within a given culture, gender schemas tell us what the typical man or woman should be like. In Western cultures, men tend to prize attributes related to achievement, emotional strength, athleticism. Women prize interpersonal competencies, kindness, and helpfulness to others (Beyer, 1990; Marsh, 1990). © 2013 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 -35