Moscow State Institute of International Relations MGIMOUniversity School

Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO-University) School of Government and International Affairs & Alexander Shishkin Department of Philosophy The Basics of Philosophy Part I Introduction Lecture 1 The Subject of Philosophy and the Nature of Philosophical Knowledge

The Subject of Philosophy and the Nature of Philosophical Knowledge q The Concept of Philosophy • • Knowledge and Cognition Ordinary and Theoretical Knowledge Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge Philosophy and Ideology q The Subject and Major Branches of Philosophy • Ontology • Epistemology • Axiology q The Three Philosophical Traditions • The Western Philosophy • The Indian Philosophy • The Chinese Philosophy q The Four Epochs and the Two Paradigms of Western Philosophy • • The Ancient Philosophy The Medieval Philosophy The Modern Philosophy The Contemporary Philosophy Ø The Pre-Platonic Philosophy Ø The Post-Kantian Philosophy

The Concept of Philosophy Φιλοσοφία Φιλειν, Gr. to love Σοφία, Gr. the wisdom Pythagoras (c. 580 – c. 500 B. C. ) The term philosophy is believed to have been coined by Pythagoras

The Concept of Philosophy Knowledge and Cognition Knowledge is a form of social and individual memory, a “curtailed” scheme of activity and communication, a result of designating, structuralising and comprehending an object in the process of cognition. I. Kasavin. Knowledge (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The Concept of Philosophy Knowledge and Cognition is a philosophical category that refers to the process of constructing ideal plans of activity and communication, development of symbolic systems required to uphold human interaction with both other humans and the world at large in various experiential contexts. I. Kasavin. Cognition (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The Concept of Philosophy Ordinary and Theoretical Knowledge Theoretical knowledge Know-how (art) Experience Simple knowledge Ordinary knowledge

The Concept of Philosophy Ordinary and Theoretical Knowledge Theory is, in the narrower and more specific sense, the highest, most developed form of scientific knowledge that renders comprehensive portrayal of regular essential relations within a specific sphere of reality. Structurally, a theory is a differentiated, but integral system of knowledge characterised by § the logical interdependence of elements § and the possibility to deduce theory’s content from the set of theory’s basic notions and assumptions. V. Shvyryov. Theory (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge Science is (1) a specific kind of cognitive activity aimed at developing § objective, § systemic and § substantiated knowledge about the world; (2) social institutions providing for this cognitive activity. V. Styopin. Science (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge The Defining Features of Scientific Knowledge Scientific knowledge is theoretical. Scientific knowledge is a body of knowledge organised as a system of logically interrelated statements. Science strives after objective truths.

The Concept of Philosophy and Ideology Truth is a central concept of epistemology; in tradition conventionally traced back to Aristotle, though ascertained well before him, truth signifies the correspondence of subjective cognitive acts (sensations, perceptions, concepts, beliefs, theories, etc. ) to objective reality. This Aristotelian concept of truth is nowadays called the correspondence theory of truth.

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge The Defining Features of Scientific Knowledge Scientific knowledge is theoretical. Science strives after objective truths. Scientific statements must be substantiated. Scientific knowledge is a body of knowledge organised as a system of logically interrelated statements. The goal of science is to understand reality as it actually is, not as it appears to us, nor as we would rather have it. Scientific statements must be based on facts (“save the phenomena”) and take into account all relevant facts.

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge Fact (Lat. factum, of facere, to do) is (1) something that has actual existence as different from imaginary; (2) a piece of information presented as having objective reality, in fact meaning in truth. Adapted from The Merriam-Webster's Dictionary.

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge A branch of knowledge that deals with the most general laws of the Universe Philosophy is a kind of “superscience” (the( «наука “main” наук» ) science”) Russell (1872 – 1970) A kind of knowledge that is based on free enquiry, but lacks scientific definiteness Philosophy is a kind of “underscience” (“science to be” or, perhaps, never to be) Aristotle (384 – 321 B. C. ) The study of man’s relation to the world, rather than of the world or the man as such Philosophy is a “metascience” (the reflective science)

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge Science seeks understanding of objective reality and, therefore, disengages from everything subjective. Philosophy differs from science in that it does not disengage itself from the subjective. In other words, science strives towards an outlook of the world as it would be if we never existed or, at least, never sought to understand it. On the contrary, philosophy strives towards a world outlook that not merely takes into account our presence in the world, What science depicts is, thus, not the world as it really is (for the real world includes us, too!), but a specific aspect (or model) of the real world. but makes it, i. e. our presence in the world (or to put it otherwise, the subject-object relations) its specific field and focus of study.

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge Theoretical knowledge Know-how (art) Experience Simple knowledge Ordinary knowledge Objective knowledge Science Reflective knowledge

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge Reflection (self-reflection) (Lat. reflexio, bending back) is examination of one’s own thoughts and feelings, thinking aimed at itself, self-understanding.

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge Philosophy is a specific form of knowledge about the principles of human existence and human attitude to nature, society and culture. Adapted from V. Styopin. Philosophy (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The Concept of Philosophy Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge The Defining Features of Philosophical Knowledge Like scientific, philosophical knowledge is theoretical. Philosophy draws on objective truths, but treats of issues that transcend objectivity. Like scientific, philosophical statements must be substantiated. Philosophical knowledge is a body of knowledge organised as a system of logically interrelated statements. The goal of philosophy is not limited to understanding reality as it actually is, but to reflect on our relations and attitudes to it. However, their substantiation is not just in correspondence to facts, but in the critical character of our reflection as well.

The Concept of Philosophy and Ideology Knowledge Theoretical knowledge Know-how (art) Experience Simple knowledge Ordinary knowledge Objective knowledge Science Reflective knowledge Critical reflective knowledge Uncritical reflective knowledge Philosophy Ideology

The Concept of Philosophy and Ideology is a system of conceptually organised ideas that expresses the interests, world outlook and ideals of various political actors (classes, nations, communities, political parties and movements) and serves to sanction either the existing social order (conservative ideologies) or the need to change it (ideologies of leftist or rightist radicals). G. Semigin. Ideology (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The Concept of Philosophy and Ideology Philosophy is a form of theoretical knowledge based on critical examination of the subject-object relations: of human existence and human attitude to nature, society and culture. Ideology is an attempt at theoretical justification of subjective attitudes: personal or group interests, prejudices and ideals, i. e. their uncritical projection onto social and, when deemed opportune, natural reality.

The Concept of Philosophy and Ideology The Defining Features of Ideological Knowledge Like scientific and philosophical, ideological knowledge is theoretical. Ideology may be seen as a kind of knowledge, but cognition is not its major function. Unlike scientific and philosophical, ideological knowledge is not substantiated. Ideological knowledge is a body of knowledge organised as a system of logically interrelated statements. The goal of ideology is not knowledge of objective reality, but justification of subjective attitudes. Though ideological tenets are logically drawn from certain postulates, the latter are devoid of objectivity.

The Subject and Major Branches of Philosophy as critical reflection on human relations and attitudes to reality Reflection on objective relations Reflection on cognitive relations Reflection on value attitudes Ontology Epistemology Axiology The study of being The study of knowledge, more specifically, but not exclusively of scientific knowledge The study of values Metaphysics The study of transcendent principles of being Ethics Aesthetics The study of good The study of beauty

The Major Branches of Philosophy Ontology (Gr. όν, Gen. όντος, being, and λόγος, word, notion) is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and relations of being. It is sometimes identified with metaphysics inasmuch as the latter is understood as the study of transcendent principles of reality and being. Metaphysics (Gr. μετά τά φυσικά, the [works] after Physics) is a division of philosophy concerned with the fundamental nature (usually understood as transcendent) of reality and being. The term is sometimes used as synonymous to philosophy; sometimes, to ontology. It also implies elements of epistemology required to define its subject.

The Major Branches of Philosophy Epistemology (Gr. επιςτήμη, knowledge, and λόγος, word, notion) is theory of knowledge; the study of the nature and grounds of knowledge, especially with reference to its limits and validity. In languages (such as German and Russian) in which theory of knowledge is called gnoseology, epistemology usually refers to theory of scientific knowledge.

The Major Branches of Philosophy Axiology (Gr. αξια, value, and λόγος, word, notion) is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, types and criteria of values and value judgements, especially in ethics and aesthetics. Ethics (Gr. ηθικά, from ηθικός, related to customs and character; Lat. Ethica) is a study of morals; a philosophical discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad, right and wrong. Apart from good and beauty as the highest ethical and aesthetic values, some axiologists treat of truth and being itself as, respectively, the highest epistemic and existential values.

The Three Philosophical Traditions Greece The 6 th century B. C. (“The Axial Time”) China India

The Four Major Epochs of Western Philosophy q The Ancient Philosophy (6 th century B. C. – 3 rd century A. D. ) • • The Early Ancient Philosophy (6 th – 5 th centuries B. C. ) The High Classical Philosophy (late 5 th – 4 th centuries A. D. ) The Hellenistic Philosophy (late 4 th – 1 st centuries B. C. ) The Late Ancient Philosophy (1 st – 3 rd centuries A. D. ) q The Medieval Philosophy (4 th – 14 th centuries) • The Patristic Philosophy (4 th – 8 th centuries) • The Scholastic Philosophy (11 th – 14 th centuries) q The Modern Philosophy (15 th century – 1830 s) • • The Renaissance Philosophy (15 th – 16 th centuries) The Early Modern Philosophy (17 th century) The Enlightenment Philosophy (1700 s – 1770 s) The Classical German Philosophy (1780 s – 1830 s) q The Contemporary Philosophy (since 1840 s)

The Two Major Paradigms of Western Philosophy q Pre-Platonic Philosophy (6 th century B. C. – 5 th century A. D. ) q Post-Platonic Philosophy (4 th century B. C. – 18 th century) q Post-Kantian Philosophy (since 19 th century)

Philosophy Were there no advantage to be reaped from these studies, beyond the gratification of an innocent curiosity, yet ought not even this to be despised; as being one accession to those few safe and harmless pleasures, which are bestowed on the human race. David Hume. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

The Course Content Ø Section 1. Introduction • Lecture 1. The Subject of Philosophy and the Nature of Philosophical Knowledge q Part I. Ancient and Medieval Philosophy Ø Section 2. Cosmocentric Philosophy: Classical Greek Philosophy • • • Lecture 2. From Thales to Zeno: Early Greek Philosophy of Nature Lecture 3. Ancient Atomism: Substantiation of Materialism Lecture 4. Plato: Substantiation of Idealism Lecture 5. Aristotle's Ontology: The Structure of Reality Lecture 6. Aristotle's Epistemology: The Structure of Knowledge Lecture 7. Aristotle's Logic : The Tool and Language of Thought Ø Section 3. Anthropocentric Philosophy: Hellenistic and Roman Philosophy • Lecture 8. Epicureans and Stoics: Philosophy as the Art of Living. • Lecture 9. Ancient Skepticism: The Uncertainty of Knowledge Ø Section 4. Theocentric Philosophy: Western Medieval Philosophy • Lecture 10. Western Medieval Philosophy

The Course Content q Part II. Modern Philosophy Ø Section V. Epistemocentric Philosophy: Modern European Philosophy • Lecture 11. Francis Bacon: Substantiation of Empiricism • Lecture 12. René Descartes and Benedict Spinoza: Substantiation of Rationalism • Lecture 13. John Locke and Gottfried Leibniz: Ontological Foundations and the Nature of Human Understanding • Lecture 14. George Berkeley and David Hume: Idealism Ontological and Epistemological Ø Section VI. The Origins of Sociocentric Philosophy: Classical German Philosophy • Lecture 15. Kant’s Theory of Knowledge • Lecture 16. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: Absolute Idealism • Lecture 17. Karl Marx: Historical Materialism

Textbooks The Principal Textbooks Anthony Kenny. Bertrand Russell. A New History of Western A History of Western Philosophy. Nikolai Biryukov. The Basics Philosophy

Textbooks Supplementary Readings Wilhelm Windelband. A History of Philosophy Frederick Copleston. A History of Philosophy. Vol. 1 -10 Routledge History of Philosophy. Vol. I-X

Questions?