CHAPTER 9 Principles of Exercise Training CHAPTER 9

CHAPTER 9 Principles of Exercise Training

CHAPTER 9 Overview • Terminology • General principles of training • Resistance training • Anaerobic and aerobic power training programs

Terminology: Muscular Strength • Strength: maximal force that a muscle or muscle group can generate – Static strength – Dynamic strength (varies by speed and joint angle) • 1 repetition maximum (1 RM): maximal weight that can be lifted with a single effort – Start with proper warm-up – Add weight until only 1 repetition can be performed

Terminology: Muscular Power • Muscular power: rate of performing work – Explosive aspect of strength – Power = force x (distance/time) • Power more important than strength for many activities • Field tests not very specific to power • Typically measured with electronic devices

Figure 9. 1

Terminology: Muscular Endurance • Endurance: capacity to perform repeated muscle contractions (or sustain a single contraction over time) • Number of repetitions at given % 1 RM • Increased through – Gains in muscle strength – Changes in local metabolic, cardiovascular function

Table 9. 1

Terminology: Aerobic Power • Aerobic power: rate of energy release by oxygen-dependent metabolic processes • Maximal aerobic power: maximal capacity for aerobic resynthesis of ATP – Synonyms: aerobic capacity, maximal O 2 uptake, VO 2 max – Primary limitation: cardiovascular system – Can be tested in lab or estimated from wide variety of field tests

Terminology: Anaerobic Power • Anaerobic power: rate of energy release by oxygen-independent metabolic processes • Maximal anaerobic power: maximal capacity of anaerobic systems to produce ATP – – Also known as anaerobic capacity Maximal accumulated O 2 deficit test Critical power test Wingate anaerobic test

General Principles of Training: Principle of Individuality • Not all athletes created equal • Genetics affects performance • Variations in cell growth rates, metabolism, and cardiorespiratory and neuroendocrine regulation • Explains high versus low responders

General Principles of Training: Principle of Specificity • Exercise adaptations specific to mode and intensity of training • Training program must stress most relevant physiological systems for given sport • Training adaptations highly specific to type of activity, training volume, and intensity

General Principles of Training: Principle of Reversibility • Use it or lose it • Training improved strength and endurance • Detraining reverses all gains

General Principles of Training: Principle of Progressive Overload • Must increase demands on body to make further improvements • Muscle overload: muscles must be loaded beyond normal loading for improvement • Progressive training: as strength , resistance/repetitions must to further strength

General Principles of Training: Principle of Variation • Also called principle of periodization • Systematically changes one or more variables to keep training challenging – Intensity, volume, and/or mode – Volume/ intensity • Macrocycles versus mesocycles

Resistance Training Programs: Training Needs Analysis • First appropriate step in designing and prescribing appropriate resistance training program identifies – – Muscle groups to target Type of training Energy system to stress Injury prevention needs • Specifics of resistance training program design based on needs analysis

Resistance Training Programs: Strength, Hypertrophy, and Power • Should involve concentric (CON), eccentric (ECC), and isometric contractions – CON strength maximized by ECC – ECC benefits action-specific movements • Exercise order – Large muscle groups before small, multijoint before single joint, high intensity before low intensity • Rest periods based on experience – Novice, intermediate lifters: 2 to 3 min between sets – Advanced lifters: 1 to 2 minutes between sets

Resistance Training Programs: Static-Contraction Resistance • Muscle force without muscle shortening • Also called isometric training • Early evidence showed great promise – Later evidence did not support early findings – Isometric training nonetheless still popular • Ideal for immobilized rehab situations

Resistance Training Programs: Free Weights Versus Machines • Free weights (constant resistance) – Tax muscle extremes but not midrange – Recruit supporting and stabilizing muscles – Better for advanced weight lifters • Machines – May involve variable resistance – Safer, easier, more stable, better for novices – Limit recruitment to targeted muscle groups

Figure 9. 2

Resistance Training Programs: Dynamic Eccentric Training • Emphasizes ECC phase of contraction – In this phase, muscle’s ability to resist force greater than with CON training – Theoretically produces strength gains versus CON • Early ECC versus CON research equivocal • More support from recent studies – ECC + CON workouts maximize strength gains – ECC important for muscle hypertrophy

Resistance Training Programs: Variable-Resistance Training • Resistance in weakest ranges of motion, in strongest ranges • Muscle works against higher percentage of its capacity at each point in range of motion • Basis for several popular machines

Figure 9. 3

Resistance Training Programs: Isokinetic Training • Movement at a constant speed – Angular velocity can range from 0 to 300°/s – Strong force opposed by more resistance – Weak force opposed by less resistance • Resistance from electronics, air, or hydraulics • Theoretically allows maximal contraction at all points in range of motion

Resistance Training Programs: Plyometrics • Also known as stretch-shortening cycle exercise – Uses stretch reflex to recruit motor units – Stores energy during ECC, released during CON – Example: deep squat to jump to deep squat • Proposed to bridge gap between speed and strength training

Figure 9. 4

Resistance Training Programs: Electrical Stimulation • Pass current across muscle or motor nerve – Ideal for recovery from injury or surgery – Reduces strength loss during immobilization – Restores strength and size during rehab • No evidence of further supplemental gains in healthy, training athletes

Resistance Training Programs: Core Stability and Strength • Core: trunk muscles around spine and viscera – Abdominal muscles – Gluteal muscles, hip girdle – Paraspinal, other accessory muscles • Yoga, Pilates, tai chi, physioball • Proximal stability aids distal mobility

Resistance Training Programs: Core Stability and Strength • May decrease likelihood of injury • Increases muscle spindle sensitivity – Permits greater state of readiness for joint loading – Protects body from injury • Core musculature mostly type I fibers, responds well to multiple sets and high reps

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training • Train sport-specific metabolic systems • Programs designed along a continuum from short sprints to long distances – Sprints: ATP-PCr (anaerobic) – Long sprint/middle distance: glycolytic (anaerobic) – Long distance: oxidative system (aerobic)

Table 9. 2

Table 9. 2 (continued)

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Interval Training • Repeated bouts of high/moderate intensity interspersed with rest/reduced intensity – More total exercise performed by breaking into bouts – Same vocabulary as resistance training: sets, repetitions, time, distance, frequency, interval, rest • Example – Set 1: 6 x 400 m at 75 s (90 s slow jog) – Set 2: 6 x 800 m at 180 s (200 s jog-walk)

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Interval Training • Appropriate for all sports and activities • For given sport, first choose mode, then adjust – – – Rate of exercise interval Distance of exercise interval Number of repetitions and sets per training session Duration of rest/active recovery Type of activity during active recovery Frequency of training per week

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Exercise Interval Intensity • Determined by duration/distance or % HRmax • Duration and distance more practical – One method: Use best time at a set distance, adjust duration by desired intensity – Intensity depends on fitness, number sets/reps, etc. – ATP-PCr system training ~90 to 98% intensity – Anaerobic glycolytic training ~80 to 95% intensity – Aerobic oxidative training ~75 to 85% intensity

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Exercise Interval Intensity • % HRmax a better index of physiological stress – – HRmax determined by lab test, all-out run ATP-PCr training ~90 to 100% HRmax Anaerobic glycolytic training ~85 to 100% HRmax Aerobic-oxidative training ~70 to 90% HRmax • Heart rate monitors helpful for recording HR for duration of workout

Figure 9. 5

Figure 9. 6

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Distance of Interval • Determined by requirements of activity • Sprint training: 30 to 200 m (even 400 m) • Distance training: 400 to 1, 500+ m

Repetitions and Sets per Session • Largely sport specific • Short, intense intervals more repetitions and sets • Longer intervals fewer repetitions and sets

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Duration of Rest Interval • Depends on how rapidly athlete recovers – Based on HR recovery (fitness and age dependent) – <30 years: HR should drop to 130 to 150 beats/min – >30 years: subtract 1 beat for every year over 30 • For active recovery between sets, HR <120 beats/min

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Activity During Rest Interval • Exercise intensity recovery intensity • With better fitness, intensity or rest duration • Land training: slow or rapid walk or jog • Swimming: slow swimming or total rest

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Frequency of Training • Depends on purpose of interval training • World-class runner: 5 to 7 times/week • Swimmers: interval training every workout • Team sports: 2 to 4 times/week

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Continuous Training • Training without intervals • Targets oxidative, glycolytic systems – Can be high or low intensity – High intensity near race (85 to 95% HRmax) – Low intensity: LSD training

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: LSD Training • Long, slow distance • Train at ~60 to 80% HRmax (50 to 75% VO 2 max) – Popular, safe – However, must train near race pace, too • Main objective: distance, not speed – Up to 15 to 30 mi/day, 100 to 200 mi/week – Less cardiorespiratory stress – Greater joint/muscle stress, overuse injuries

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Fartlek Training • Vary pace from sprint to jog at discretion • Continuous training + interval elements • Primarily used by distance runners – Fun, engaging, variety – Supplements other types of training

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Interval-Circuit Training • Combined interval and circuit training – Circuit length 3, 000 to 10, 000 m – Interval stations every 400 to 1, 600 m – Stations involve strength, flexibility, or endurance • Jog, run, or sprint between stations • Often set in parks or countryside