Chapter 10 Managing Politics Conflict and Change Politics

Chapter 10 Managing Politics, Conflict, and Change

Politics, Conflict, and Change • Politics, conflict, and change are real, pervasive, and important, and they create uncertainty, turmoil, and stress. • They share some similar causes, such as resource scarcity. • They each foster more of the same: politics leads to more politics, conflict to more conflict, and change to more change. • They also breed one another: politics and change are likely to engender conflict; conflict may foster change, and may lead to political behaviors. • While not often listed on job descriptions, each involves critical skills.

Organizational Politics • Organizational politics refer to activities that people perform to acquire, enhance, and use power and other resources to obtain their preferred outcomes in a situation where there is uncertainty or disagreement. • Since the focus is on people’s preferred outcomes rather than those of the organization, organizational politics may or may not involve activities that are contrary to the best interests of the organization.

Politics and Labeling

Manager’s Feelings About Workplace Politics Statement • The experience of workplace politics is common in most organizations. • Successful executives must be good politicians. • The higher you go in organizations, the more political the climate becomes. • Powerful executives don’t act politically. • You have to be political to get ahead in organizations. • Top management should try to get rid of politics in organizations. • Politics helps organizations function effectively. • Organizations free of politics are happier than those where there is a lot of politics. • Politics in organizations is detrimental to efficiency. % Agreeing • 93. 2 • 89. 0 • 76. 2 • 15. 7 • 69. 8 • 48. 6 • 42. 1 • 59. 1 • 55. 1

Some Determinants of Organizational Politics (Figure 10 -1) Organizational Determinants Individual Determinants • Machiavellianism • Self-Monitoring • Need for Power • Individual Values Organizational Politics • Organizational Values • Ambiguity • Counternorms • Competition • Level in Organization

Individual Determinants: Machiavellianism • Since Machiavellians believe that ends justify means and they should always “look out for number one, ” it’s not surprising that they are highly political. • Al Neuharth, founder of USA Today and author of Confessions of an SOB, has argued that CEOs commonly employ Machiavellian behavior and that “Being Machiavellian, as a general offense, is not all bad. ” • Machiavellians see political behavior as pragmatic and appropriate. • Machiavellianism has been related to the decision to offer kickbacks and lower scores on ethical orientation. Al Neuharth

Individual Determinants: Self-Monitoring • Recall that high self-monitors are chameleon-like, adjusting their behaviors in ways to induce positive reactions from others. • High self-monitors have been shown to be more apt than low self-monitors to engage in manipulation and filtering of information that they transmit upward to create a favorable impression.

Individual Determinants: Need for Power • Need for power is the desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, and to be responsible for them. • Personalized power seekers try to dominate others for the sake of dominating, and derive satisfaction from conquering others. • Socialized power seekers satisfy their power needs in ways that help the organization. They may show concern for group goals, find goals to motivate others, and work with a group to develop and achieve goals. • We would expect more political behavior from personalized power seekers than from socialized power seekers.

Organizational Determinants: Organizational Values • Bottom-line mentality. Sees financial success as the only value to be considered; rules of morality are simply obstacles on the way to the bottom line. • Exploitative mentality. A selfish perspective that encourages using people to benefit one’s own immediate interests. • Madison Avenue mentality. Says, “It’s right if I can convince you that it’s right. ” Focuses on making others believe our actions are moral.

Organizational Determinants: Norms and Counternorms (Figure 10 -3) Norms • Openness, honesty, candor • Follow the rules • Be cost-effective • Take responsibility Counternorms • Secrecy and lying; “play your cards close to your chest” • Break the rules to get the job done. • “Spend it or burn it” • Avoid responsibility; “pass the buck” • “All for one and one for all” • Achieve your goals at the expense of others • Maintain an appearance of • Maintain high visibility; “grandstanding” consensus; support the team • “Never do today what you can put • Take timely action off until tomorrow”

Pfeffer’s Political Strategies MAKE POWER UNOBTRUSIVE BUILD LEGITIMACY EFFECTIVE POLITICS BUILD A BASE OF SUPPORT

Pfeffer’s Political Tactics • Selectively use objective criteria • Use outside experts – they have expertise – they appear to be objective – they are expensive • Control the agenda – keep items off the agenda that you don’t want discussed – place items on the agenda in ways to get desired amount of discussion – place a weak “dummy” proposal on the agenda before a key proposal you want to be approved

Pfeffer’s Political Tactics (Continued) • Form coalitions – external coalitions • these bring in new resources • they may cause resentment – internal coalitions • these may seem less overtly political than external coalitions • one form of internal coalition is coalition through promotions • Coopt dissenters • Use committees

Questioning the Tactics Sample questions to challenge the tactics might include: • Why were these criteria specified in the posting of job requirements? • Who selected the outside consultant who was brought in to make recommendations regarding changes in the reward system? • Why wasn’t a discussion of the proposed job redesign program on the agenda? • Is this committee to which I’ve been appointed for real or is the decision it’s making a “done deal”?

Defensive Behaviors to Avoid Action • overconforming • passing the buck • playing dumb • depersonalization • stretching and smoothing • stalling

Defensive Behaviors (Continued) Defensive Behaviors to Avoid Blame • • • buffing playing safe justifying scapegoating misrepresenting escalation of commitment Defensive Behaviors to Avoid Change • resisting change • protecting turf

Impression Management • Impression management is behavior that people direct toward others to create and maintain desired perceptions of themselves. • The most prominent type of impression management behavior is self-presentation, which involves the manipulation of information about oneself. • Self-presentation can be verbal or nonverbal or involve display of artifacts. • There at least eight types of verbal self-presentations.

Verbal Self-Presentational Behaviors (Figure 10 -5) Rendering Favors Other Enhancement Self. Descriptions Verbal Self. Presentation Acclaiming Apologies Organization Descriptions Opinion Conformity Accounts

Political Games • Henry Mintzberg has suggested that organizational politics is a “collection of goings on, a set of ‘games’ taking place … a kind of three ring circus. ” • He identified four types of games: – – Authority Games Power Base Games Rivalry Games Change Games

Asking Whether a Political Act is Ethical (Figure 10 -7) Utility: Does the Act Optimize the Satisfaction of All Constituencies? NO YES Right: Does the Act Respect the Rights of the Individuals Involved? NO Political Act is Unethical YES Justice: Is the Act Consistent with the Canons of Justice? YES Political Act is Ethical NO

Potential Benefits of Political Activity Political activity may: • act in a Darwinian way to ensure that the strongest members of an organization are brought into positions of leadership. • ensure that all sides of an issue are fully debated. • stimulate necessary change that is blocked by those currently in power. • ease the path for the execution of decisions.

Guidelines for Minimizing Political Activity • • • Don’t close your eyes to politics. Challenge political behaviors. Reduce ambiguity. Make things visible. Walk the talk. Recognize that others may interpret your behaviors as political, even if you really weren’t being political. • Reduce your own and others’ vulnerability to political behaviors.

The Bottom Line: Managing Organizational Politics Effectively Learn the Culture and the “Rules of the Game” for Success in the Organization Establish Credibility and an Overall Positive Impression in the Eyes of Others in the Organization Use Defensive Behaviors as Protection Against Dirty Political Players in the Organization Build a Base of Support by Networking, Forming Alliances, etc. , with Key Players Act in Ways Consistent with What is Verbally Communicated to Employees (Walk the Talk) Create and Implement Formal and Clear Policies, Procedures, etc. , to Reduce Ambiguity Be Open and Visible with Employees When Dealing with Key Issues that Affect Them

Conflict Premises • Conflict and disagreement are normal in human relationships. • Conflict may be good. • The way in which conflict is framed may influence its nature and outcomes. – Relationship/task – Emotional/intellectual – Cooperate/win • A mutually acceptable solution can often be found.

Conflict Premises (Continued) • Any of the parties to conflict can contribute to its resolution by taking personal responsibility and initiating communications. • Trusting behavior can evoke trusting behavior. • Consensus and synergy are likely only when people choose to cooperate in a win-win relationship rather than compete. • Some conflicts may never be resolved because of fear, rigidity, intolerance, paranoia, or other emotional impairment.

Causes of Conflict Competition Over Scarce Resources Differentiation Ambiguity Conflict Competitive Reward Systems Task Interdependence Goal Incompatibility

A Conflict Model • Latent Conflict. Latent conflict is essentially conflict waiting to happen. • Felt Conflict. Felt conflict is experienced as discomfort and tension. • Perceived Conflict. Perceived conflict is the awareness that we are in a conflict situation. • Manifest Conflict. After conflict is perceived and felt, it may or may not become open, or manifest. • Conflict Aftermath. Conflict is likely to breed more conflict and, when it does, that conflict is likely to take on a life of its own.

A Conflict Model (Figure 10 -8) Aftermath of Preceding Episode Latent Conflict Organizational and Extra. Organizational Tensions Conflict Resolution Mechanisms Felt Conflict Environmental Effects Perceived Conflict Manifest Conflict Aftermath Attention. Focus and Diversion Mechanisms Strategic Considerations

The Legacy of Conflict at the Dart Group • The legacy of conflict is seen in the saga of the Hafts, once called the “most feared family in retailing. ” • Dart Group founder Herbert Haft fired his wife and older son, Robert, when he read a newspaper article suggesting that his clout was on the wane and that Robert had become Dart’s de facto head. • This led to a divorce, lawsuits among family members, and a battle for control of the empire that led to bankruptcy and dismantling the company. • The battle continues in cyberspace as Herbert and Robert have competing online health products ventures.

Conflict Styles • Competing. Involves trying to win at the other party’s expense. Generally leads to antagonism and festering resentment. • Avoiding. Attempts to avoid or smooth over conflict situations. Generally unproductive. • Accommodating. Involves acceding completely to the other party’s wishes or at least cooperating with little or no attention to one’s own interests. • Compromising. Involves an attempt to find a satisfactory middle ground (“split the difference”) • Collaborating. This problem-solving style is mutually beneficial. Requires trust, open sharing of information, and creativity.

Fitting Conflict Style to the Situation (Figure 10 -9)

Approaches to Conflict Resolution (Figure 10 -10) Focus on Larger Goals Bring Parties Together to Foster Understanding and Cooperation Separate Conflicting Parties Improve Communications Reduced Conflict Use Third Parties as Mediators Clarify Job Responsibilities Develop Employees’ Negotiating Skills

Sharing a Boat • It is sometimes helpful to bring competing parties together so they can get to know each other’s perspectives and practice cooperation. • Two Pacific Northwest nonprofit groups used this approach to smooth the waters between environmental and timber interests, battling over preservation of timberland for the spotted owl. • Ten men who were central to the fight agreed to spend three days guiding an old wooden sailboat through the San Juan Islands in Puget Sound. • According to one of the organizers, “It’s a cooperative effort to be on a boat, and that spills over into any kind of discussion. ”

Korean Conflict Management • The way conflict is managed depends on cultural factors. • Koreans feel harmony is essential in all relationships and situations; this belief is founded in Confucianism. • To achieve harmony, Confucians laid out a hierarchical societal structure and prescribed that individuals should maintain their position. • Those higher in status have an obligation to maintain or restore harmony among those below them, and they reap respect when they do so.

Communication Guidelines to Build More Productive Relationships • • • Be honest; say what’s on your mind now. Be open. Be specific; provide examples. Don’t use the words never and always. Listen in depth; reflect and paraphrase what you hear. Ask questions to clarify the meaning of what the other person is saying. • Focus on behavior that the other person controls. • Maintain good eye contact.

Communication Guidelines to Build More Productive Relationships (Continued) • Focus on only one specific issue or behavior at a time. • Don’t interrupt. • Stay there. Don’t walk away mentally, emotionally, physically, or psychologically. • Be direct and tactful. • Use I statements rather than you statements (e. g. , “When this happens, I feel …” rather than “When you do this, it makes me feel …”). • Don’t attack the other person by ridiculing, taunting, or otherwise being rude and hostile. • Don’t defend yourself by blaming others, avoiding, or withdrawing.

The Bottom Line: Applying the General Conflict Management Process Identify the Basis for Conflict Seek to Understand Others’ Conflict. Handling Styles Manage the Aftermath of the Conflict to Maintain Important Relationships Match the Most Appropriate Conflict. Handling Style to the Situation Reach an Acceptable Resolution to the Conflict

Approaches to Generating Conflictive Conflict • Sales contests create competition among marketing employees. • Uncertainty can be induced by assigning different tasks, hiring new personnel, or changing the reward system. • A devil’s advocate can be given the task of finding faults in proposed solutions so as to avoid a situation in which a group fails to evaluate its choices critically. • A scapegoat -- someone who bears the blame for an unpopular action -- may be required to introduce needed changes. Such as person may “shake things up, ” “take the heat, ” and then be replaced.

Managing Change • Change is a critical uncertainty facing the organization, and the ability to manage change is a valuable skill. • Organizations are becoming more change-oriented, responding to various forces in increasingly dynamic environments. • Change is difficult, and may not always be good. • Change may often be necessary, but it may also be painful. • People may differ in the degree to which they resist change and in their motivations to change.

Forces for Change • Some external forces for change: • Some internal forces for change: – globalization – performance gaps – the growing diversity of the workforce – new leadership – the explosion of the Internet – a new mission – new legislation – employee pressures – changing customer desires and expectations – heightened levels of competition

Planned Versus Reactive Change • Managers can respond to change either by planning or reacting. • Planned change occurs when managers develop and install a program that serves to alter organizational activities in a timely and orderly way. • Reactive change occurs when managers simply respond to the pressure for change when that pressure comes to their attention. • Planned change is typically regarded as superior to reactive change.

The Change Process -- Lewin’s Change Model (Figure 10 -11) Phase 1 Unfreezing • Create High Felt Need for Change • Minimize Resistance to Change Phase 2 Changing • Change People, Tasks, and Structure • Encourage Ongoing Support Phase 3 Refreezing • Reinforce Outcomes • Constructive Modification

Targets of Change (Figure 10 -12) Structural Technological Purpose or Task Human

Web Wise: Robot Information Central • The installation of robots is a good example of technological change. • For a huge listing of robotic links, go to Robot Information Central at the website of Arrick Robotics. • http: //www. robotics. com/robots. html

Sources of Resistance to Change (Figure 10 -13) Uncertainty Self-Interest Resistance to Change Habit Rejection of Change Source Lack of Understanding and Trust Differing Perceptions Lack of Tolerance for Change

Focus on Management: Trust Building at Eastman Chemical • Earnest Deavenport, CEO of Eastman Chemical, credits the company’s substantial success to the way in which Eastman has retooled the traditional contract between company and employees. • One element of Eastman’s trust-building strategy is an incentive and compensation system, Eastman’s Performance Plan, that encourages employees worldwide to become stewards of the company. • Through the system, Eastman employees will soon own 20% of the company’s stock.

Lighten Up: Bad Fads • While change is often desirable, people may implement change for questionable reasons. • For example, some change efforts are essentially impression management, attempts to give the appearance of progress or to detract attention from other problems. • In addition, change may sometimes take the form of blindly following fads. • Check out the Bad Fads museum at: http: //www. badfads. com

Change Approaches (Figure 10 -14)

The Rhetorical Triangle (Figure 10 -15) Logos Pathos Ethos

Logos • Logos refers to convincing another person to accept change through reason, logic, and data. • When people are told about a change at work that will affect them, they normally first react by asking “Why? ” • When you initiate change, be prepared to provide a clear rationale in a direct, well-supported manner, using education and communication as your persuasive method.

Logos Guidelines • Do your homework, gathering relevant facts that prove that a real problem exists. • Identify sources of help. • Anticipate questions and objections. • Sell the benefits of the change in terms of the perspective of those who will have to go through it. It is easiest to sell the need for change when there is a “burning platform. ” A burning platform is a dramatic, vivid demonstration that the current situation is unacceptable.

Logos Guidelines (Continued) • Use catalytic mechanisms to reinforce the change; catalytic mechanisms help to translate objectives into performance by making “stretch” goals reachable. They generally involve a dramatic policy that requires people to act in new ways that further the overarching goal. • Listen in depth to concerns, questions, and fears. • Create an implementation plan that answers the key questions most people have when faced with change: who, what, where, when, why, and how.

Wingwalking • General Dennis Reimer, the U. S. Army’s Chief of Staff, explained that the army is now in a different world and has to be able to change to serve the nation’s needs. • He noted that the army is a conservative organization that believes in “the first rule of wingwalking: You don’t let go of what you’ve got in your hands until you’ve got something else in your hands. ” • As such, change can best be “sold” when the present situation is unacceptable and there is something else to hold on to -- some promising new beginning.

Short Pay at Granite Rock • The copresidents of Granite Rock, a century-old California company that sells crushed gravel and related products set an audacious goal: Granite Rock would provide total customer satisfaction and achieve a reputation for service that met or exceeded that of Nordstrom. • To achieve this goal, Granite Rock implemented a radical new policy: “short pay. ” Every Granite Rock invoice contains the words, “If you are not satisfied for any reason, don’t pay us for it. Simply scratch out the line item, write a brief note about the problem, and return a copy of this invoice along with your check for the balance. ” • The policy serves as a warning system, impelling managers identify the root causes of problems to prevent repeated short payments. • It also signals to employees and customers the sincerity of the company’s commitment to customer satisfaction.

Ethos • Ethos refers to convincing another person to accept a change through the strength of your moral character and the trust that followers have in you. • People tend to cooperate with a leader who has high credibility, a combination of competence and trustworthiness. • When faced with a persuasive argument, the audience asks, “Does this person know the truth? ” They ask if the person is informed, skilled, and intelligent. • They also ask, “Does this person tell the truth? ” To answer this, they consider the person’s trustworthiness: one’s character, moral fiber, and personal integrity.

Pathos • Pathos refers to convincing others to accept a change through appeals to emotional and psychological needs. • One effective way to satisfy people’s emotional needs and to stimulate high motivation is to get them actively involved in the change itself. • When people feel they have had a voice and a hand in shaping the change and its implementation, they tend to adopt ownership of it. • Using participation in planning and implementing changes enriches people’s work, raises self-esteem and selfconfidence, and hones problem-solving skills.

Deciding When to Use the Change Approaches (Figure 10 -16)

Organizational Development (OD) • Organizational development (OD) has been defined as “an effort • (1) planned, • (2) organization-wide, • and (3) managed from the top, to • (4) increase organizational effectiveness and health through • (5) planned interventions in the organization’s ‘process, ’ using behavioral science knowledge. ”

OD Assumptions and Values • People as individuals: – people in the organization seek to satisfy higher-order needs – people desire to make a contribution to the organization – people have the potential to make a contribution to the organization • People as group members: – the nature of group relationships will determine the satisfaction and contribution of the individual members of the group. – It is important that group members feel that acceptance in the work group is meaningful and that the group is capable of generating trust, support, and cooperation among members. – The nature of the group should be such that members are capable of acting both as leaders and as followers when necessary.

OD Assumptions and Values (Continued) • People as members of the organization: – organization structures have an impact on member attitudes and behaviors – win-lose conflict strategies are not healthy in the organization – upper management must have a long-term commitment to change within the organization

The OD Process Identify a Need for Change Select a Technique for Change Gather Top Management Support Plan the Change Process Overcome Resistance to Change Evaluate the Change Process

OD Intervention Techniques • • • Diagnostic techniques Team building Survey feedback Education Intergroup activities Third-party peacemaking

OD Intervention Techniques (Continued) • • • Sociotechnical activities Process consultation Life and career planning Coaching Planning and goal setting

Conditions for Successful OD Programs • Recognition by managers and members that the organization has problems. • Use of an external change agent to start the process. • Support from top management for the change process. • Involvement of work group leaders. • Early success with the change effort. • Understanding of the change process and its goals.

Conditions for Successful OD Programs (Continued) • Support of managerial strengths. • Inclusion of human resource managers in the OD program. • Development of internal OD resources. • Effective management of the OD program. • Measurement and evaluation of results.

The Learning Organization • According to Peter Senge, in learning organizations “people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people continually learn how to learn together. ” • Learning organizations develop specific learning capabilities not present in traditional organizations. Peter Senge

The Five Disciplines of Learning Organizations (Figure 10 -17) Systems Thinking Personal Mastery Learning Capabilities Team Learning Mental Models Shared Vision

The Seven Learning Disabilities • “I am my position. ” People often identify with their jobs rather than with the larger enterprise. • “The enemy is out there. ” We have a tendency to “externalize, ” finding someone or something outside ourselves to blame when things go wrong. • “The illusion of taking charge. ” All too often, proactiveness is just reactiveness in disguise. • “The fixation on events. ” We are conditioned to see life as a series of events and to believe that there is one obvious cause for each event.

The Seven Learning Disabilities (Continued) • “The parable of the boiled frog. ” We often fail to notice gradual change. It is critical to remain attuned to the gradual processes that often pose the greatest threats. • “The delusion of learning from experience. ” We never experience the consequences of our most important decisions; these have system-wide consequences that play out over years. • “The myth of the management team. ” Members of management teams, instead of battling these disabilities, often fight for turf, try to avoid blame, and work to give the appearance of a cohesive team.

Developing Learning Organizations Learning Cultures Learning Leaders Learning Organizations Learning Infrastructures Leadership Communities