RACIAL AND ETHNIC RELATIONS FEAGIN TH 8 ed

RACIAL AND ETHNIC RELATIONS FEAGIN, TH 8 ed.

JEWISH AMERICANS CHAPTER 5

• • This chapter uses the term Jewish American as shorthand for Jewish Americans of European descent There are relatively small and rarely researched Jewish communities with national origins in Iran, Syria, North Africa, and non-European areas of Russia There also small groups of African Americans, Latino, and Asian Jews might be regarded as most widely oppressed racial or ethnic group in world history

MIGRATION • From 1500 to World War II • • Early immigrants came to Atlantic coast seeking economic opportunities denied them in Europe Marranos • • Derogatory term for Jews who were forced to convert publicly to Christianity during the Spanish Inquisition under threat of death but privately maintained allegiance to Judaism Central European Jews came to U. S. after 1820

• Pogroms • • • Organized, often officially encouraged attacks on Jews Contributed to out-migration President Franklin Roosevelt’s administration permitted modest increase in Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany • More than 400, 000 slots within U. S. immigration for refugees from countries under Nazi control • • Slots were not used Some of the unfilled slots possibly represented lives lost to extermination by the Nazis because of discriminatory U. S. immigration policies

• From World War II to the Present • • Jewish migration tapered after the late 1940 s Between late 1960 s and 2000 s a new group of eastern European Jews from Soviet Union migrated to U. S. • • Emigrated because of resurgence of anti-Semitism and social chaos in Russia National Jewish Population Survey (NJPS) • • • Current Jewish American population about 5. 2 million Represents large proportion of world’s Jewish population Today, Jewish Americans are 2% of U. S. population

PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPES • Jewish Americans socially defined by non -Jewish outsiders on the basis of physical and cultural characteristics • • Non-Jews in many countries consider Jews to be a biologically inferior race Anti-Semitism • • Stereotyping of prejudice toward, or discrimination against, Jews Theology contributed to anti-Semitism • Jews cursed as “Christ killers”

• Unlike African, Native, and Latino Americans often stereotyped as unintelligent, Jews viewed as too intelligent and crafty • • • Stereotype developed to rationalize success of Jews During 1800 s, Jews excluded from many organizations and institutions The Protocols of the Elders of Zion • Created by Russian secret police and showed Jews as anti-Christian agents, taking covert control of the world, and destroying Western civilization

• Various forms of anti-Semitism persist today in U. S. and Europe • Mel Gibson – “The Passion of the Christ” • • • Jewish groups protested because movie portrayed Jews as collectively responsible for death of Jesus Jewish Americans single out the religious right as most anti-Semitic group Joyce Antler • • Documented critical roles of Jewish women in their communities Inaccurate stereotypes of pop culture • Yiddish Mama, Jewish Mother, Jewish American Princess (JAP)

OPPRESSION AND CONFLICT • Organized Anti-Semitism and Hate Crimes • • More than one hundred anti-Semitic organizations between 1932 and 1941 Increased anti-Semitism in Germany an important factor in rising number of Nazi attacks against Jewish Americans Violent attacks on Jewish Americans, property, and synagogues was common after WWII Anti-Defamation League (ADL) • • Receive reports of anti-Semitism Number of hate crimes by skinheads have grown in recent years

• Hate Crimes • • Defined as crimes against people and property generated by prejudice against racial, ethnic, religious, , disability, or sexual orientation groups Recently, more than 40 legislatures passed hate crime laws Numerous state legislatures have increased penalties for crimes involving racial and ethnic hatred Hate Crimes Prevention Act (1999) • • Comprehensive federal approach to hate crimes Supported by Jewish and other civil rights groups

Religious Discrimination and Conflict • • Federal courts have periodically dealt with religious discrimination Jewish business owners contested “blue laws” • • • Required businesses to close on Sunday Laws violated 1 st Amendment rights of Jews not to be penalized for religion 1986 Supreme Court • U. S. Air force could require an Orthodox rabbi chaplain to remove lyarmulke when indoors

• Jewish Americans Fight Back • Fear of crime and anti-Semitism led to formation of • Jewish Defense League (JDL) by Rabbi Meir Kahane, 1968 • • Reinvigoration of ethnic pride and use of armed citizens Kahane assassinated in 1990 Condemned by the Anti-Defamation League for reckless violence against Jews who disagree and non. Jews Most Jewish Americans condemn extremist groups

Jewish-Black Relations • • Both groups share a long history of mutual assistance Groups have had periodic conflict • • • Urban rebellions , 1960 s, 1980 s-1990 s Controversy between Jews and blacks in New York City has gained media attention Black anti-Semitism criticism of Israeli. Palestinian conflict alienated Jewish Americans from participation in intergroup coalitions

• Letty Pogrebin – Reason for continuing tension between Jews and blacks • • “The differences between blacks and Jews are rarely more obvious than when each group speaks about its own survival, a word that both use frequently but with quite dissimilar meanings…. Blacks worry about their actual conditions and fear for the present; Jews worry about their history and fear of the future” Tensions between the two groups have not substantially affected Jewish commitment to civil rights

• Today, many Jewish individuals and organizations strongly support black civil rights causes and communities • There is overlap between African American and Jewish American • • Small groups of African Americans adhere to Judaism Since 1990 s, black and Jewish citizens enter into numerous dialogues seeking ways to ease tensions between the two traditional allies in the struggle for civil rights

POLITICS • • Jewish immigrants always treated as outsiders U. S. Constitution and Bill of Rights granted political freedom at the federal level • • Political enfranchisement slower at state level Jewish Americans supported Democratic Party for decades • • 1850 s many gravitated towards to the antislavery Republican Party Voting power increased as Jews concentrated in northern cities

Jewish Americans and Political Parties • • By 1910, few Jews had won electoral office Franklin Roosevelt fully brought Jews into Democratic fold in 1932 • • Anti-Nazi rhetoric, support of social programs, support of labor unions Roosevelt did not take dynamic action on refugees from Nazi Europe • • Fear of intense anti-Semitism in U. S. 2005 Annual Survey of American Jewish Opinion • 54% Democrat, 16% Republican • Lowest for any white ethnic group

• Historically, Jews are underrepresented among elected and appointed officials • • 1974 first Jewish mayor of NYC – Abraham Beame 1 st Jewish woman elected mayor of San Francisco – Diane Feinstein 1 st time in Democratic party history, Jewish American Senator Joseph Lieberman chosen as 2000 vice-presidential candidate Discrimination still a role in limiting Jews who occupy political offices

• Unions and Community Organizations Jewish union leaders went beyond problems of wages and working conditions • • • American Jewish Congress • • Developed health, pension, and educational programs Played important role in growth of American Socialist Party and other labor-liberal parties Fought for civil rights United Jewish Appeal 1939 • Successful fund-raising organization

• United Jewish Communities • • Merger of humanitarian and philanthropic federations and organizations Survival of Israel a major concern for Jewish organizations • Jewish American pressure mobilized • • • Opposition to political candidates who support Middle Eastern policies hostile to Israel Some organizations work to eliminate all racial prejudice and discrimination and ensure separation of church and state Jews are most affluent of white ethnic groups • Expected to develop orientation of other high-income groups

THE ECONOMY • • Jewish immigrants contributed to the prosperity of North America from colonial times Haym Salomon • • • Financed the American Revolution with a loan to the struggling government Success in commercial pursuits in Europe made them scapegoats for non-Jewish poor Discrimination in U. S. fostered and ethnic economy in which Jews relied on economic aid from one another

Establishing an Economic Niche: “A Middleman Minority” • • Rate of penetration of new immigrant group into the core economy depends on its economic background as well as conditions at point of destination Next large group of immigrants poor and poorly educated • Experience of coping with oppression in Europe provided them with strategies in finding economic niches • Men, women, and children engaged in low-wage labor, often in sweatshops

• Early 1900 s, more than 1/3 rd of eastern European Jews employed in garment district • • Second generation encouraged to enter white-collar professions Jewish women contributed significantly to family incomes • • 1 in 3 Jewish households had a woman working outside the home Often joined husbands in small retail shops that supplied many neighborhoods

From the Depression to 1950 • • Solidarity of Jewish community and heavy involvement in small and medium - sized businesses source of survival during Great Depression Jewish ethnic community provided fallback positions for those who faced discrimination from gentiles • • Jewish workers found difficulty securing skilled blue-collar and clerical jobs Signs “No Jews need apply” common

• Obsession of anti-Semites • • Alleged Jewish “dominance of banking” 1936 Fortune Magazine survey • • • Few Jewish Americans in banking and finance Jews overrepresented in clothing, textiles, and movies Cluster patterns of Jews in certain industries reflected extent to which Jewish workers were forced to work outside mainstream industries and businesses

• Employment discrimination continued after WWII • • • Yet Jewish Americans able to share in postwar posterity • • Job advertisements included anti-Jewish restrictions Employment agencies discriminated against Jews New industries such as television and plastics Jewish executives made it to the top only in Jewish owned businesses

Individual and Family Success • Recent National Jewish Population Survey (NJPS) • Estimated median family income $54, 000 • • Significantly less for all U. S. households Occupational mobility characterized Jews over last few decades • 1960 s 20%-32% males in professional positions and 28%-54% in managerial positions • • More than half in these two major categories Rest in clerical or sales

• • Recently, Jewish executives not in control of U. S. banking except one New York bank 1980 study • • Corporate elite Jews found in Jewish founded corporations or occupied lower managerial positions in other corporations Abraham Korman 1988 study • • • To succeed in the corporate hierarchy, Jewish Americans must divest themselves of all visible Jewish identity Until past 2 decades, higher government positions rarely open to Jews Academic sphere more accommodating • Many Jews college professors

• Persisting Discrimination 2005 ASAJO respondents • • • Anti-Semitism still a problem in U. S. Only 10% believe it will decrease in the future Anti-Semitism keep many Jewish Americans from full social recognition and political power • • 1985, New York City passed law banning anti. Jewish and other discrimination in private clubs 1992, bill passed banning racial and gender discrimination in private country clubs

EDUCATION • • Education more a priority for later groups than early ones College valued as a door to a career for the young • • Eastern European immigrants established numerous schools that taught Jewish religious practices to ensure U. S. -born retained their ethnic and religious identity Education mobility came swiftly for 2 nd and 3 rd generation Jewish Americans

Discriminatory Quotas for Jewish Students • Progress in higher education countered by discrimination on the part of Anglo. Protestant whites • • Restrictive quotas imposed at numerous colleges and universities from 1920 s to 1950 s Jews often excluded from teaching positions • • Increase in college enrollments after WWII created demand for college Proportion of Jewish faculty increased to 9%

Affirmative Action Programs • Affirmative action for black and non. European groups became a political issue for some Jews • • • Long supporters of individual merit because of quota restrictions College admissions preferences disproportionately affect Jewish access and perpetuate effects of anti-Semitic discrimination Support for Affirmative Action from Alan Dershowitz, prominent Jewish American law professor

Continuing Achievements in Education • Severe anti-Jewish discrimination declined after WWII • • • Educational attainment reached higher levels Schooling in Jewish religion and culture also persist Emphasis on learning heritage and religion in lower grades carried over to colleges • 41% of current college and graduate students have taken a Jewish studies class

RELIGION AND ZIONISM • Role of Judaism in Jewish identity a point of conflict between established German Jews and later Eastern European immigrants • • • German Jews saw themselves as Americans whose religion is Judaism Eastern Europeans had strong desire to maintain old ethnic identity Conservative Judaism began in the 1880 s • Authority of rabbi and rituals became less important

Trends in Religious Practice and Identity • Expanding suburbanization after WWII brought increase in suburban congregations • Jewish religion currently reflects interest in traditional heritage, maintenance of synagogue as community center, and home religious practices • Judaism now one of major US religions • “Cardiac” religion – emphasizing “heart” (ethics) rather than tradition and ritual • • Orthodox Judaism Reform Judaism

Israel and Zionism • • Commitment to Israel affected Jewish voting patterns and Jewish-black relations • • A worldwide movement for the establishment in Palestine of a normal homeland for the world’s Jewish communities Pro-Arab sentiments among some black leaders Ongoing negotiations between Israel and Palestine since 1990

ASSIMILATION OR PLURALISM ? • Two different theoretical perspectives to explain experiences of Jewish Americans • Anglo-conformity perspectives • • Dominant perspective among Jewish Americans Cultural pluralism approach • • Favored by certain Jewish leaders since 1800 s Horace Kallen • • Coined term cultural pluralism Ethnic cultural group membership is not easily abandoned - ethnic groups have right to exist on their own terms

Patterns of Assimilation • Partial cultural assimilation relatively quick for each of the three major groups of Jewish immigrants and their children • 2 nd generation women pressured to reject strong-woman reality and adopt servile “ladylike” virtues of Anglo. Protestant culture • Central and eastern Europeans advanced quickly in sphere of structural assimilation

• • Even today, occupational distribution underscores point that prosperous are not fully integrated into upper reaches of economy and society Jewish economic success explained (Nathan Glazer) • • • Judaism emphasizes traits that businessmen and intellectuals require and has done so 1, 500 years before Calvinism Emphasis on learning and study also traced that far back Others argue less to do with religion than historical and structural conditions

• Recent decreasing residential concentration of Jews has not eliminated their informal social cohesion and strong voluntary organizations • • • Geographic mobility based on same factors as other Americans Informal ties remain relatively strong Despite affluence discrimination persists • Milton Gordon • • Assimilation at behavior-receptional level Less assimilation at attitude-receptional level • Anti-Semitic prejudice still found in communities across U. S.

• Intermarriage opposed by some • • • Threatens survival of Jewish community Intermarriage increased with each successive generation Speculation on whether Jews will eventually disappear at rate of intermarriage Some intermarried couples have embraced Judaism 2005 ASAJO survey showed Jews not concerned that intermarriage is destroying Jewish identity • More concern over external threats than internal threat of intermarriage

Recent Immigrants: Strong Jewish Identity • Social and economic adjustment of recent Jewish immigrants raises issues concerning assimilation and U. S. culture • • • Close ties between Israel and U. S. make migration easy Israeli immigrants often maintain distance from native born Jews in language and values Many Russian Jews have reported difficulty assimilating to U. S. culture • • Left because of anti-Semitism Like freedom but dislike “low” cultural tastes

• Steven Gold • • Examined adaptation among refugees from Soviet Union in LA and San Francisco There Jewish population is geographically concentrated • • • Younger, well educated émigrés found desirable jobs and moved into middle class Middle-aged émigrés with no transferable skills or unwilling to take lower prestige jobs had more difficulty adapting and often remained isolated from fellow émigrés Many concerned over Republican attempts to limit immigration • Aligned themselves with other immigrant groups to gain support for immigrant programs

Contemporary Jewish Identity and the Future of the Community • What does it mean to be Jewish today? • • • Scholars stress that in U. S. society all Jews are Jews by choice View is exaggerated but does indicate degree of change since intense racialized anti. Semitism of early to mid-twentieth century Ethnogenesis perspective • The reality of cultural differences among contemporary ethnic groups and helps in interpreting the Jewish experience

• Sociologist Sylvia Barack Fishman • Described Jewish pattern of adaptation to core culture as “coalescence” • • Herbert Gans • • Liberal American social and political values held by most American Jews have come to be seen as simply “Jewish” values Jewish identity is a “symbolic ethnicity” without lasting significance Danger of Anglo-conformity assimilation is actually assimilation to Christian culture • Jewish history professor

• Some Jewish leaders express concern over changes at voluntary organization level • • • Jewish philanthropy and service organizations face a decline in private and government support No support from American Jews with weak sense of identity Recent surveys found that most still have substantial connections to Jewish subculture and communities

• Greater acceptance of Jews in a non. Jewish society seems to make Jewish Americans less likely to abandon their Jewishness • • Identity has become a badge of pride Jewishness may have become a marker of all ethnicity in 21 st century America • History and connection of Jews with humor may serve as a model for masses, easing anxiety in the face of adversity

Accepting and Challenging White Privilege • Jews remain significantly differentiated in identity, history, and experience from other white Americans • Jewish social scientist Karen Brodkin • Many American Jews worked hard to become accepted as “white” • • Moved to suburbs, changed their names, or underwent cosmetic surgery to assimilate better Eric Goldstein “The Price of Whiteness” • Shows how Jewish Americans have become uncomfortable with the group move to embracing white privilege • Given long history of fighting racial and ethnic oppression