Chapter 4 Understanding Performance 1 Module 4 1

Chapter 4 Understanding Performance 1

Module 4. 1: Basic Model of Performance • Basic definitions – Performance: Actions or behaviors – Effectiveness: Evaluation of results of performance – Productivity: Ratio of effectiveness (output) to cost of achieving that level of effectiveness (input) 2

Campbell’s Model of Job Performance • 3 direct determinants of job performance – Declarative knowledge (DK) – Procedural knowledge & skill (PKS) – Motivation (M) 3

Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance Figure 4. 1 Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance Source: Based on Campbell, Mc. Cloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993). 4

Campbell’s Model (cont'd) • 8 basic performance components – 3 are essential for every job • Core task proficiency • Demonstrated effort • Maintenance of personal discipline 5

Full Campbell Model Figure 4. 2 The Full Campbell Model Source: Based on Campbell, Mc. Cloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993). 6

Criterion Deficiency & Contamination • Ultimate (theoretical) criterion – Ideal measure of all relevant aspects of job performance • Actual criterion – Actual measure of job performance obtained • Differences between ultimate criterion & actual criterion represent imperfections in measurement – contamination & deficiency 7

Criterion Deficiency & Contamination (cont'd) • Criterion deficiency – When actual criterion is missing information that is part of behavior one is trying to measure • Criterion contamination – When actual criterion includes information unrelated to the behavior one is trying to measure 8

Criterion Contamination, Deficiency, & Relevance Figure 4. 3 Criterion Contamination, Deficiency, and Relevance 9

Module 4. 2: Extensions of the Basic Performance Model Task performance (Doing just what is expected) vs. Contextual performance (Going beyond what is expected) CORBIS 10

Task Performance • Requirements vary from job to job • Individual differences tied to abilities & knowledge • Activities part of job description Contextual Performance • Common to most jobs • Individual differences tied to personality • Activities not part of job description • Supports organizational environment 11

Contextual Performance – 5 aspects – Persisting with enthusiasm & extra effort – Volunteering to carry out task activities not in job description – Helping & cooperating with others – Following organizational rules & procedures – Endorsing, supporting, & defending organizational objectives 12

Contextual Performance (cont'd) • Increasing importance in today’s workplace – Global competition will require more effort from employees – Teams are more common now – Downsizing requires adaptability & extra effort – Customer service increasingly important 13

Contextual Factors and Campbell’s Performance Components Figure 4. 4 14

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) – Altruism • Helpful behaviors directed toward individuals or groups – Generalized compliance • Helpful behaviors directed toward the broader organization 15

Types of Performance Measures • Objective performance measures – Quantitative count of the results of work • Judgmental measures – Evaluation of the effectiveness of an individual’s work • Personnel measures – Typically kept in personnel file (e. g. , absences, accidents, rate of advancement) 16

Adaptive Performance • Beneficial due to changing nature of work – Changing technologies alter work tasks – Mergers, downsizing, & corporate restructuring – Globalization & working in different cultures 17

Adaptive Performance: 8 Dimensions – – – – Handling emergencies or crisis situations Handling work stress Solving problems creatively Dealing with uncertain work situations Learning work tasks, technologies, & procedures Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability Demonstrating cultural adaptability Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability 18

Expert Performance • Performance exhibited by those who have practiced for at least 10 years & have spent average of 4 hours/day in deliberate practice • Deliberate practice – Individualized training on tasks selected by a qualified teacher Photo. Link/Getty Images 19

Constraints on Performance • Counterproductive employee behaviors – Voluntary behavior violating significant organizational norms & threatening organization, its members, or both – Interpersonal deviance – Organizational deviance 20

Hierarchical Model of Deviance (Sackett & De. Vore) Figure 4. 5 Hierarchical Model of Deviance Source: Based on Sackett & Devore (2001). 21

Common Counterproductive Behaviors • Dishonesty – Employee theft or dishonest communications • Absenteeism – Failure to report for or remain at work as scheduled • Sabotage – Acts that damage, disrupt, or subvert the organization’s operations 22

Module 4. 3: Job Analysis: Fundamental Properties & Practices • Job analysis Filename: 7055. JPG – Process that determines “essence” of a collection of tasks falling within scope of particular job title 23

Uses of Job Analysis Information Performance assessment Job description Training Selection Promotion Workforce reduction Recruiting Criterion development Compensation 24

Early Example of Job Analysis Figure 4. 6 25

Brief History of Job Analysis • 1922 – Viteles & job psychograph – Used in job analysis to display mental requirements of a job 26

Viteles’ Job Psychograph Figure 4. 7 27

Types of Job Analysis Task-oriented job analysis – Begins with statement of actual tasks & what is accomplished by those tasks Worker-oriented job analysis – Focuses on attributes of the worker necessary to accomplish tasks 28

KSAOs – Knowledge • Collection of discrete, related facts & information about a particular domain – Skill • Practiced act – Ability • Stable capacity to engage in a specific behavior – Other characteristics: interests, training, etc. 29

Role of Job Analysis in Assessment Figure 4. 8 The Role of Job Analysis in Assessment 30

Potential distorting influences in JA – Need of subject matter expert (SME) to conform to what others report – Desire to make one’s job look more difficult – Attempts to provide answers that SME thinks job analyst wants – Carelessness 31

How Job Analysis is Done 1. 2. 3. 4. Observation Interviews: Incumbent, Supervisor Critical incidents & work diaries Questionnaires/surveys 32

Module 4. 4: Job Analysis: Newer Developments • Electronic performance monitoring – Can be cost effective – Potential for providing detailed & accurate worklog – e. g. , “This call may be monitored for quality control purposes. ” Siede Preis/Getty Images 33

Cognitive Task Analysis • Methods for decomposing job & task performance into discrete, measurable units with special emphasis on eliciting mental processes & knowledge content • Think-aloud protocol – Approach that investigates thought processes of experts who achieve high levels of performance 34

Cognitive Task Analysis (cont'd) • Time consuming & requires a good deal of expertise to do well • Consider the following to determine whether cognitive task analysis may be worthwhile: – – Persistent performance problems Costly errors or accidents Training difficult to transfer to job behavior Takes a long time to achieve high levels of performance 35

MAPS Representation Figure 4. 9 36

Context of Work • Conditions or characteristics of work that can change demands on the incumbent – Aspects of context • Interpersonal relationships • Physical work conditions • Structural job characteristics • Realistic job preview (RJP) 37

New Addition to Job Analysis Instruments • Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) – Devoted to identifying personality predictors of job performance – Intended to supplement job analysis 38

Sample Page from PPRF Figure 4. 10 39

Summary of Job Analysis Process 1. The more information gathered from the greatest number of sources, the better the job analyst can understand the job 2. Most job analyses should include considerations of personality demands & work context 40

Occupational Information Network or O*NET • Introduced by federal government to replace the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D. O. T. ) • Electronic medium, so it can be updated instantaneously as changes occur 41

O*NET Data Bases Figure 4. 12 Data Bases Forming the Foundation for O*NET Source: Mumford & Peterson (1999). 42

Competency Modeling • Identifies characteristics desired across all individuals & jobs within an organization • Connects individuals with organizational viability & profitability • Natural extension of job analysis logic, rather than a replacement 43

Module 4. 5: Job Evaluation, Comparable Worth, & the Law • Job evaluation: Method for making internal pay decisions by comparing job titles to one another & determining their relative merit – Compensable factors • Skills, responsibility, effort, & working conditions • Equal Pay Act of 1963: requires “equal pay for equal work. ” 44

Comparable Worth • Notion that people who are performing jobs of comparable worth to an organization should receive comparable pay • In the end, comparable worth is concerned with the social value of fairness 45

Job Analysis & Employment Litigation • Competent job analysis does not guarantee validity, but absence of credible job analysis could be very damaging • Growing gap between evolution of I-O psychology & Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978) • SIOP Principles (2003) are more updated and consistent with current research 46