SPORTS IN SOCIETY SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES CHAPTER

SPORTS IN SOCIETY: SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES CHAPTER 11 SPORTS AND ECONOMY: What are the Characteristics of Commercial Sports? PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -1

Conditions for Emergence and Growth of Commercial Sports • A market economy. • Large, densely populated cities. • People who have time, money, transportation and media access. • Large amounts of capital. • Culture emphasising consumption and material status symbols. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -2

Class Relations and Commercial Sports The preferences and priorities of people with power and wealth often influence which sports are commercialised – for example: • Golf is enjoyed by the wealthy and powerful; it receives much TV coverage despite low ratings. • Football reproduces an ideology that privileges men and celebrates masculinity. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -3

Why Have Sports Become So Popular in Society Today? • • The quest for excitement. Class ideology and spectator interest. Widespread organised, competitive youth sports. Widespread media coverage. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -4

Economic Factors and the Globalisation of Commercial Sports • Sports organisations look for global markets. – FIFA, the IRB, the NBA, etc. seek global media exposure and expansion. • Corporations use sports as vehicles for global expansion. – One goal is to make money. – Another goal is to sponsor enjoyment and pleasure to establish ideological outposts in the minds of people around the world. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -5

Ideological Outposts in Action: Branding Sports • Sports places have been branded. • Sports events have been branded. • Athletes have been branded. - Corporate branding is now accepted by many people as necessary, non-political, even ‘natural’. Question: Isn’t that a sure sign of outposts in action? PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -6

Commercialisation and Changes in Sports Changes may occur in the: • structure and goals of sports • orientations of athletes, coaches and sponsors • organisations that sponsor and control sports. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -7

Changes in Structure and Goals Rule changes are made to make action more exciting, understandable and profitable by: • • • speeding up action increasing scores and scoring chances balancing competition maximising dramatic moments providing commercial breaks. The GOAL: create a total entertainment experience. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -8

The Origins of Heroic Action in Sports Commercial sports are ENTERTAINMENT ü Commercial entertainment depends on attracting a mass audience. ü Members of a mass audience lack technical knowledge about a sport. ü Entertaining people without technical knowledge requires heroic actions. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -9

Commercial Sports Involve a Shift From Aesthetic to Heroic Orientations • • Aesthetic Orientations Beauty and pleasure of movement Emphasis on mastery of technical skills Willingness to explore limits Commitment to staying involved • • Heroic Orientations Danger and excitement of movement Emphasis on style and dramatic expression Willingness to go beyond limits Commitment to success of sponsor PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -10

The Promotional Culture of Professional Wrestling • Emphasis is on heroic action. • Events are dramatic spectacles. • Players display carefully constructed personas. • Storylines are simple; they emphasise domination, gender differences and capricious bosses. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -11

Spectator Appeal in Sports Spectator appeal in sports depends on: • the uncertainty of an event’s outcome • the stakes associated with an event • the anticipated display of excellence, heroics or dramatic displays by participants. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -12

Sport Organisations With commercialisation: • control shifts away from athletes; decisions are less likely to reflect their interests • control shifts toward owners, corporate sponsors, advertisers, media personnel, marketing and publicity staff, professional management staff, accountants and agents. – Athletes accept the decisions of these people, because their financial interests are at stake. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -13

Owners, Sponsors and Promoters of Professional Sports When the diversity of professional sports is taken into consideration: • owners are a diversified collection of people – usually white men • profits may be great in leagues where monopoly control and TV revenues are high; but losses may be great under other conditions. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -14

Advantages of Monopoly Team owners in the major men’s pro sports have established monopolies that enable them to: • control athlete movement • negotiate high media rights fees • prevent the formation of new teams • share revenues. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -15

Forms of Public Assistance for Team Owners • Use of public funds to construct and maintain facilities. • Deduction loopholes to use on tax returns. • Tax breaks and rebates. • Control of revenues in public facilities. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -16

Stadium Subsidies: Arguments For 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A stadium and team create jobs. Stadium construction infuses money into the local economy. Team will attract other businesses. Team will attract media attention that boosts tourism, product sales and economic development. Team will create positive psychic and social benefits. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -17

Stadium Subsidies: Arguments Against 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Stadium jobs are seasonal and low paying except for athletes and execs. Construction materials often are purchased outside the local area. New businesses often are franchises headquartered in other cities. Discretionary money is limited and may be shifted away from other businesses. Promoting macho orientations does not benefit everyone in a community. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -18

Sources of Income for Team Owners • Gate receipts/ticket sales • Sale of media rights (TV/radio) • Stadium revenues – – leases on club seats and luxury boxes concessions/parking/leasing spaces to others sale of naming rights and site advertising special events/concerts/meetings • Licensing fees and merchandise sales PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -19

Amateur Sports • Amateur sports are self-funded and dependent on corporate sponsors or funded through a central government sports authority. • All amateur sports organisations share an interest in two things: power and money. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -20

Legal Status of Athletes in Pro Team Sports • Forms of the ‘reserve system’ have been used to restrict the freedom of athletes to play where they wish. • Players’ associations and unions have challenged this system and struggled for ‘free agency’. – Free agency has been achieved to varying degrees in major team sports. – Labour rights for athletes in minor sports are limited. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -21

Legal Status of Athletes in Individual Sports • Varies greatly from sport to sport and athlete to athlete. • Status often depends on what athletes must do to support their training and competition. • Status may be partially protected by professional associations formed by the athletes. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -22

Income: Team Sports • The large majority of pro athletes make limited income. • The super-contracts and mega-salaries of a few athletes have distorted popular ideas about athlete income. • Income among top athletes has risen recently because: – legal status and rights have improved – league revenues have increased. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -23

Income: Individual Sports • Many athletes do not make enough to pay expenses. • There are increasing disparities between top money winners and other athletes. • Top male heavyweight boxers have traditionally made the most money. Question: Does this mean that athletes are rewarded for reaffirming certain ideologies? PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -24

Best Paid Competitors PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2 e by Coakley, Hallinan and Mac. Donald © 2011 Mc. Graw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd 11 -25