mirror neuron http en wikipedia orgwikiFile Makakneonatalimitation png

鏡像神經元 (mirror neuron) http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/File: Makak_neonatal_imitation. png AYO 生命教育 2014 4

Preceding bouts of aggressive play, juvenile gorillas use a facial gesture called a ”play face”, which appears to signal that “what is about to occur is play”. AYO 生命教育 2014 5

Figure 11: A juvenile chimpanzee comforts a distressed (憂傷的) adult. Preston, S. D. and F. B. M. de Waal (2002) Empathy: its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25(1): 1 -20. AYO 生命教育 2014 6

� Fig. 12. A raccoon approached a hare in the darkness and the hare leaped over the raccoon Wallace, R. A. (1997) Biology: the world of life. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. AYO 生命教育 2014 7

Center for Building a Culture of Empathy AYO 生命教育 2014 8

Proximate bases ◦ 來自 mirror 認同 心靈理論 neuron ◦ Perception-Action model (PAM) (感知行動模式) and prefrontal functioning Ultimate bases 同理心 情緒感染 真同理心 ◦ 來自增加 inclusive fitness 角色取代 認知同理 ◦ Mother-infant bond ◦ Experience Learning ◦ Emotional linkage ◦ Group esteem (團體自尊) ◦ Reciprocal altruism ◦ Social interactions and bonds Preston, S. D. and F. B. M. de Waal (2002) Empathy: its ultimate and proximate bases. AYO 生命教育 2014 Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25(1): 1 -20. 9

Kantian ethics (康德倫理學) Maximized (最大化) Love (愛) Freedom + Justice + Equality 自由 + 正義 + 公平 AYO 生命教育 2014 12

Bateman’s principle Work on fruit flies Females should be the choosier sex because eggs are expensive and because a female’s reproductive success is limited compared with that of a male, and this should translate into greater variance in the reproductive success of males. AYO 生命教育 18 2014

AYO 生命教育 19 2014

The polygyny threshold model (PTM) AYO 生命教育 20 2014

The PTM and human female mate choice Kipsigi tribe of Kenya The number of wives was strongly affected by the size of his territory– with larger, and presumably more resource-rich, territories came an increase in the number of wives. In the Kipsigi population, polygyny is the norm. Kipsigi “cowives” both relax (A) and work (B) together. (C) a man with many wives will have numerous huts, grain stores, strips for maize, and so on. AYO 生命教育 2014 21

Polygamous mating systems ◦ Polyandry – females mate with more than one male per breeding season. ◦ Jacanas (水雉), a group of sex-role-reversed shorebirds, in which the males incubated the eggs and care for the young, and the females compete aggressively for multiple mates. AYO 生命教育 2014 22

Adopting a polyandrous mating strategy 1. Sperm replenishment ◦ Female avoids the cost of storing sperm 2. Material benefits ◦ Nutrients, reduced predation, protection from other males, access to superior feeding sites, male parental care. 3. Genetic benefits ◦ Replacement of “inferior” sperm 4. Convenience ◦ Ayo 2010 Ethology Female avoids the costs of fending off copulation attempts by male. 23

Female territories are shown in green, while alpha male territories are depicted by solid red lines and beta male territories are shown by dashed red lines. We can find mating systems ranging from monogamy to polygamy, polyandry, and polygynandry. AYO 生命教育 2014 24

Extrapair copulations (EPCs) The increased reproductive success of males who leave territories and engage in EPCs is clear, as they can fertilize more females. ◦ But why would a female be involved in EPCs? 25

Females be involved in EPCs 1. Increase the probability that all their eggs are fertilized 2. Maximize genetic diversity in their offspring 3. Use EPCs to select males who have good genes 4. Increase the amount of direct benefits– food, protection, and so on– that they receive from male. 26

生態主張者 Ayo 網站 Ayo NUTN 台南站 http: //myweb. nutn. edu. tw/~hycheng 35