Infants Children and Adolescents Eighth Edition Chapter 11

Infants, Children, and Adolescents Eighth Edition Chapter 11 Physical Development in Middle Childhood Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Learning Objectives (1 of 3) • • 11. 1 Describe changes in body size, proportions, and skeletal maturity during middle childhood. 11. 2 Describe brain development in middle childhood. 11. 3 Describe the causes and consequences of serious nutritional problems in middle childhood, giving special attention to obesity. 11. 4 What factors contribute to myopia, otitis media, nocturnal enuresis, and asthma, and how can these health problems be reduced? Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Learning Objectives (2 of 3) • • 11. 5 Describe changes in the occurrence of unintentional injuries during middle childhood, and cite effective interventions. 11. 6 What can parents and teachers do to encourage good health practices in school-age children? 11. 7 Cite major changes in gross- and fine-motor development during middle childhood. 11. 8 Describe individual differences in motor performance during middle childhood. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Learning Objectives (3 of 3) • • 11. 9 What qualities of children’s play are evident in middle childhood? 11. 10 What steps can schools take to promote physical fitness in middle childhood? Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Body Growth in Middle Childhood • Physical growth continues at a slow, regular pace. • Girls are slightly shorter and lighter than boys until about age 9, when this trend reverses. • Lower portion of body is growing fastest. • After age 8, girls accumulate fat at a faster rate. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Middle Childhood Growth Worldwide • Shortest children are found in South America, Asia, Pacific Islands, parts of Africa. • Tallest children are found in Australia, northern and central Europe, Canada, United States. • Factors accounting for physical size differences: – Heredity: Evolutionary adaptations to particular climates – Environment: Availability or scarcity of food; control of infectious diseases Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Secular Trends in Physical Growth • In industrialized nations, a secular gain in height and weight – appears early in life. – increases over childhood and early adolescence. – declines as mature body size is reached. • Gain is largely due to improved health and nutrition. • Gains in height have stabilized, but weight gain continues. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Skeletal Growth in Middle Childhood • Bones lengthen and broaden. • Ligaments are not yet firmly attached to bones, resulting in unusual flexibility. • Nighttime “growing pains” are common. • By age 12, all primary teeth have been replaced by permanent teeth. • Malocclusion occurs in one-third of school-age children. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Brain Development in Middle Childhood • Weight of the brain increases by 10%: – White matter rises steadily, especially in prefrontal cortex, parietal lobes, and corpus callosum. – Gray matter peaks in middle childhood and then declines as as result of synaptic pruning. • Synaptic pruning and reorganization and selection of brain circuits lead to more effective information processing. • Neurotransmitters and hormones may affect brain development and functioning. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Common Health Problems in Middle Childhood • Nutrition • Overweight and obesity • Vision and hearing • Bedwetting • Illnesses • Unintentional injuries Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Nutrition in Middle Childhood • Causes of poor nutrition: – – More focus on new friends and activities, less on eating Drop in percentage of children eating meals with family Poor-quality diets high in soft drinks and fast foods Malnutrition resulting from poverty • Children report feeling better and focusing better after eating healthy foods. • Prolonged malnutrition can result in permanent physical and mental impairments. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Overweight and Obesity • About 32% of U. S. children and adolescents are overweight, 17% obese, based on body mass index (BMI). • Dramatic rise in overweight and obesity has occurred in many Western nations. • Obesity rates have risen in developing countries as a result of urbanization and dietary shifts. – In China, 20% of children are overweight and 8% are obese—a fortyfold increase over the past 25 years. – Cultural beliefs may contribute (view of overweight as sign of prosperity). • Obese children are at risk for physical, emotional, and social problems. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Overweight Adults in 18 Industrialized Nations Figure 11. 2 (Based on World Health Organization, 2014 c. ) Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Causes of Obesity in Middle Childhood • Heredity (overweight parents) • Socioeconomic status • Early growth pattern of rapid weight gain • Family eating habits: use of food as reward, overfeeding, parental control of children’s intake • Responsiveness to food cues vs. hunger • Lack of physical activity • Television viewing • Early malnutrition and growth stunting Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Family Stressors and Childhood Obesity Stressful daily life prompts overeating through various routes: • Elevated stress hormones signal brain to boost caloric intake. • Chronic stress triggers insulin resistance. • Effort required to manage persistent stress strains self-regulatory capacity, interfering with ability to limit excessive eating. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Consequences of Obesity • Social isolation leads to emotional, social, and school difficulties. • Unhappiness and overeating contribute to each other. • Overweight girls are likely to reach puberty early. • Life chances are reduced by psychological consequences combined with discrimination. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Treating Obesity • Family-based interventions: – Focus is on changing behaviors, both diet and exercise. – Rewards for giving up inactivity are helpful. • School interventions: – Schools can serve healthier lunches and ensure regular physical activity. – Other measures include weight-related school screenings and improved school nutrition standards. • National campaigns, such as Let’s Move Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Vision and Hearing • Myopia (nearsightedness): – Most common vision problem in middle childhood – Affected by heredity, early biological trauma, increased eye strain – Increases with SES • Otitis media (middle ear infection): – Common in early childhood – May cause hearing loss after repeated infections • Regular screenings: Early detection and correction of vision and hearing defects Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Bedwetting Nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting during the night) • occurs in 10 children. • affects more boys than girls at all ages. • usually has biological roots. • can be treated with medication or, more effectively, by using a urine alarm. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Illnesses in Middle Childhood • Rates of illness rise during first two years of school because of – exposure to sick children. – an immune system that is still developing. • About 20– 25% of U. S. children living at home have chronic diseases: – Asthma, the most common, has increased steadily over past several decades. – Severe illnesses (sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, arthritis, cancer, AIDS) affect about 2% of U. S. children. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Interventions for Families with Chronically Ill Children • Health education: Parents and children learn about illness and how to manage it. • Home visits: Health professionals offer counseling and social support to parents and children. • Schools can accommodate special health and education needs. • Disease-specific summer camps teach children self-help skills and give parents time off. • Parent and peer support groups can help families cope. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Unintentional Injuries in Middle Childhood • Most common types of injuries: – Motor vehicle accidents involving children as passengers or pedestrians – Bicycle accidents • Characteristics of effective injury-prevention programs: – Modeling and rehearsing safety practices – Targeting specific injury risks, such as traffic safety – Emphasizing helmet use while bicycling, in-line skating, skateboarding, or using scooters – Taking steps to alter high-risk factors in families of highly active, impulsive children Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Health Education for School-Age Children • School-age period is especially important for fostering healthy lifestyles. – Gap remains between knowledge of health information and children’s behavior. – Adults should work to reduce environmental health risks. – Parents and teachers must model and reinforce good health practices. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Fostering Healthy Lifestyles in School-Age Children • Increase health-related knowledge, encourage healthy behaviors. • Involve parents in supporting health education. • Provide healthy environments in schools. • Provide voluntary screening for risk factors. • Promote pleasurable physical activity. • Teach children to be critical of media advertising. • Work for safer, healthier community environments. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Motor Development in Middle Childhood • Gains in basic gross-motor capacities: – Flexibility – Balance – Agility – Force • Advances in fine-motor skills: – Writing – Drawing Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Changes in Gross-Motor Skills During Middle Childhood • Running: increased speed • Other gait variations: skipping, sideways stepping • Vertical jump and standing broad jump: performance improvements • Precision jumping and hopping • Throwing and catching: improved ability over greater distances • Kicking: improved speed and accuracy • Batting: more effective batting motions • Dribbling: improvements in style Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Fine-Motor Development in Middle Childhood Writing: • Mastery of uppercase letters, then lowercase • Increased legibility Drawing: • Dramatic gains in organization, detail, representation of depth • Ability to copy two-dimensional shapes • Ability to relate objects to one another as part of an organized whole Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Increase in Organization, Detail, and Depth Cues in School-Age Children’s Drawings Figure 11. 5 International Collection of Child Art, Milner Library, Illinois State University, Normal, IL Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Individual Differences in Motor Skills • Differences reflect both heredity and environment. • Body build: Taller, more muscular children excel at many motor tasks. • Family income and parental encouragement affect access to lessons in athletics and other motor skills. • Sex differences extend and, in some instances, become more pronounced: – Girls have advantage in fine-motor skills as well as balance and agility. – Boys outperform girls on throwing, kicking, and other gross-motor skills. • Educating parents about minimal differences between boys’ and girls’ physical capacities can help increase girls’ self-confidence and participation. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Games with Rules • Gains in perspective taking permit transition to games with rules. • These experiences contribute to emotional and social development. • Informal play is declining in industrialized countries, as a result of – parental concern about neighborhood safety. – competition from TV, video games, Internet. – rise in adult-organized sports • Child-organized games express distinct cultural values. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Adult-Organized Youth Sports • About half of U. S. children aged 5 to 18 participate in organized sports outside of school. • Participation is generally associated with increased self-esteem and social skills. • Valid criticisms of organized sports include – overemphasis on competition and adult control. – potential for social ostracism of weaker performers, especially for boys. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Providing Developmentally Appropriate Organized Sports in Middle Childhood • Build on children’s interests. • Teach age-appropriate skills. • Emphasize enjoyment. • Limit frequency and length of practices. • Focus on personal and team improvement. • Discourage unhealthy competition. • Let children contribute to rules and strategies. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Rough-and-Tumble Play • Friendly chasing and play-fighting • Emerges in preschool years, peaks in middle childhood • Common in many mammals and across cultures • More common among boys • Helpful in establishing dominance hierarchy Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

School Recess • In U. S. school districts, – 80% no longer mandate recess for students. – fewer than half mandate at least 20 minutes of recess per day. • Recess periods boost classroom learning by – distributing cognitively demanding task over longer time. – enhancing attention and performance at all ages. • Children may be more active at recess than in gym class. • Recess fosters children’s health and physical, academic, and social competence. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

Physical Education in Middle Childhood • Physical activity supports children’s – health. – sense of self-worth as physically active, capable beings. – cognitive and social skills necessary for getting along with others. • Among U. S. students, – nearly half have no physical education classes in a typical week. – fewer than one-third engage in moderate-intensity activity for 60 minutes per day. • Physical education should – emphasize enjoyable, informal games and individual exercise. – focus on each child’s personal progress and team contribution. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.

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