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Chfgh 3 Environmental Policy: sfg Decision Making and Problem Solving dfg Part 1: Foundations of Environmental Science Power. Point® Slides prepared by Jay Withgott and Heidi Marcum Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, publishing as Pearson. Cummings Benjamin Cummings

San Diego and Tijuana • The Tijuana River empties into the Pacific Ocean, carrying millions of gallons of untreated wastewater • San Diego’s waters receive storm water runoff • Beaches are off-limits to swimming • Rains wash pollutants onto U. S. and Mexican beaches, but things are worse on the Mexican side Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Environmental policy • Environmental Policy = pertains to human interactions with the environment • Regulates resource use or reduce pollution Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Environmental policy and resource use • Policies include science, ethics, and economics • Market failure = businesses or individuals don’t minimize environmental impact • Justification for government intervention • The tragedy of the commons = we must develop guidelines for commonly held resources • The threat of overexploitation is a driving force behind much environmental policy Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Environmental policy and equity • Free Riders = reducing pollution tempts any one person to cheat • Private voluntary efforts are less effective than mandated efforts • External Cost = harmful impacts result from market transaction but are borne by people not involved in the transaction Environmental policy goals = protect resources against the tragedy of the commons and to promote equity by eliminating free riders and addressing external costs Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Why are environmental laws unpopular? • Environmental laws are challenged, derided, and ignored • Environmental policy involves government regulations • Businesses and individuals view laws as overly restrictive and unresponsive to human needs • Most environmental problems are long-term processes • Human behavior is geared toward short-term needs • News media have short attention spans • Politicians act out of their own short-term interest Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

State and local policies affect environmental issues • Important environmental policy is also created at the state and local levels • State laws cannot violate principles of the U. S. Constitution, • If laws conflict, federal laws take precedence • California, New York, and Massachusetts have strong environmental laws • The interior western states put less priority on environmental protection and favor unregulated development Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Constitutional amendments and environmental law • Fourteenth Amendment of the U. S. Constitution • Prohibits denying “equal protection of its laws” • It’s the Constitutional basis for the environmental justice movement • Fifth Amendment = takings clause • Bans the literal taking of private property • Also bans regulatory take, which deprives a property owner of economic uses of the property • There is a sensitive balance between private rights and the public good Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Early U. S. environmental policy • Involved management of public lands, 1780 s to the late 1800 s • Promoted settlement • Extraction of natural resources • Increased prosperity • Relieved crowding in Eastern cities • Displaced millions of Native Americans • People believed that land was infinite and inexhaustible Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The second wave of U. S. policy • Addressed impacts caused by the first wave • Public perception and government policy shifted • Mitigated environmental problems associated with westward expansion • Yellowstone National Park, the world’s first national park, opened in 1872 • Other protected areas were created • National wildlife refuges, parks, and forests • Reflected a new understanding that the West’s resources were exhaustible and required legal protection Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The third wave of U. S. environmental policy • Mid-to late-20 th century • Better off economically • But dirtier air, dirtier water, and more waste and toxic chemicals • Increased awareness of environmental problems shifted public priorities and policy • 1962: Silent Spring (by Rachel Carson) described the negative ecological and health effects of pesticides and industrial chemicals Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Modern U. S. environmental policy • The Cuyahoga River was polluted with oil and industrial waste • It caught fire in the 1950 s and 1960 s • Today, public enthusiasm for environmental protection remains strong • The majority of Americans favor environmental protection • In April, millions of people celebrate Earth Day Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) • 1970 began the modern era of environmental policy • Created the Council on Environmental Quality - Requires an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for any federal action that might impact the environment NEPA forces the government and businesses to evaluate the environmental impacts of a project Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The EPA shifts environmental policy • Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) • Conducts and evaluates research • Monitors environmental quality • Sets and enforces standards for pollution levels • Assists states in meeting standards and goals • Educates the public Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Significant environmental laws • The public demanded a cleaner environment and supported tougher environmental legislation Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The social context for policy can change • Three factors converged to allow major advances in environmental policy in the 1960 s and 1970 s • Wide evidence of environmental problems • People could visualize policies to deal with problems • The political climate was ripe, with a supportive public and leaders who were willing to act • In recent years, the political climate has changed • People felt burdened by environmental regulations • Attempts have been made to roll back or weaken environmental laws Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Earth Summit Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2002 • The largest international diplomatic conference ever held • It centered on the idea of sustainable development • This fourth wave of environmental policy focuses on sustainable development • Finding ways to safeguard natural systems while raising living standards for the world’s poorest people Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

International Environmental Policy • International issues can be addressed through creative agreements • Montreal Protocol: nations agreed to reduce ozonedepleting chemicals • Kyoto Protocol: reduces fossil fuel emissions causing climate change Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings An international wastewater treatment plant

Organizations help shape international policy • International organizations influence the behavior of nations • Providing funding, applying peer pressure, directing media attention • United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) = helps nations understand solve environmental problems • The European Union seeks to promote Europe’s unity and economic and social progress • Can enact binding regulations • Can also issue advisory directives Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The World Trade Organization (WTO) • Represents multinational corporations to promote free trade • Has authority to impose penalties on nations the don’t comply with its directives • Interprets some environmental laws as unfair barriers to free trade • Brazil and Venezuela filed a complaint against the U. S. EPA’s regulations requiring cleaner-burning fuel • The WTO agreed with Brazil and Venezuela, despite threats to human health • Critics charge the WTO aggravates environmental problems Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

NGOs and the World Bank • Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) = entities that influence international policy • Some do not get politically involved • Others try to shape policy through research, lobbying or protest • The World Bank = one of the world’s largest funding sources for development • Dams, irrigation, infrastructure • Funds unsustainable, environmentally damaging projects Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Science plays a role, but can be politicized • Effective policy decisions are informed by scientific research • Sometimes policymakers ignore science • They let political ideology determine policy • Scientists at government agencies have had their work suppressed or discredited - Their jobs were threatened When taxpayer-funded research is suppressed or distorted for political ends, everyone loses Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Approaches to environmental policy • Command-control approach: environmental policy sets rules or limits and threatens punishment for violators • Heavy-handed • Alternative approaches involve using economic incentives to encourage desired outcomes and use market dynamics to meet goals • Most current environmental laws - Have resulted in safe, healthy, comfortable lives Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Drawbacks of command-control • Government actions may be well-intentioned but not informed • Interest groups–people seeking private gain–unduly influence politicians • Citizens may view policies as restrictions on freedom • Costly and less efficient in achieving goals Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Widespread economic policy tools • Tax breaks = encourage desirable industries or activities • Subsidy = a government giveaway of cash or resources to encourage a particular activity • Have been used to support unsustainable activities In 2003, $58 billion of taxpayer’s money was spent on 68 environmentally harmful subsidies such as building logging roads Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Another economic policy tool • Green taxes = taxes on environmentally harmful activities • Polluter pays principle = the price of a good or service includes all costs, including environmental degradation • Gives companies financial incentives to reduce pollution • But, costs are passed on to consumers Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Market permitting and incentives • Permit trading = government-created market in permits • Businesses buy, sell, trade these permits • Emissions trading system = government-issued permits for an acceptable amount of pollution and companies buy, sell, or trade these permits with other polluters • Cap-and-trade system = a party that reduces its pollution levels can sell this credit to other parties - Pollution is reduced overall, but does increase around polluting plants • Companies have an economic incentive to reduce emissions Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings