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fgh Environmental Policy: sfg Decision Making and Problem Solving dfg Part 1: Foundations of Environmental Science Power. Point® Slides prepared by Jay Withgott, Marcum and Paul Lau Jay. Heidi Withgott and Heidi Marcum Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, publishing as Pearson. Cummings Benjamin Cummings
San Diego and Tijuana • The Tijuana River empties into the Pacific Ocean, carrying millions of gallons of untreated wastewater • San Diego’s waters receive storm water runoff • Beaches are off-limits to swimming • Rains wash pollutants onto U. S. and Mexican beaches, but things are worse on the Mexican side Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Environmental policy • Environmental Policy = pertains to human interactions with the environment • Regulates resource use or reduce pollution Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Environmental policy and resource use • Policies include science, ethics, and economics • Market failure = businesses or individuals don’t minimize environmental impact • Justification for government intervention • The tragedy of the commons = we must develop guidelines for commonly held resources • The threat of overexploitation is a driving force behind much environmental policy Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Environmental policy and equity • Free Riders = reducing pollution tempts any one person to cheat • Private voluntary efforts are less effective than mandated efforts • External Cost = harmful impacts result from market transaction but are borne by people not involved in the transaction Environmental policy goals = protect resources against the tragedy of the commons and to promote equity by eliminating free riders and addressing external costs Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Why are environmental laws unpopular? • Environmental laws are challenged, derided, and ignored • Environmental policy involves government regulations • Businesses and individuals view laws as overly restrictive and unresponsive to human needs • Most environmental problems are long-term processes • Human behavior is geared toward short-term needs • News media have short attention spans • Politicians act out of their own short-term interest Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
State and local policies affect environmental issues • Important environmental policy is also created at the state and local levels • State laws cannot violate principles of the U. S. Constitution, • If laws conflict, federal laws take precedence • California, New York, and Massachusetts have strong environmental laws • The interior western states put less priority on environmental protection and favor unregulated development Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Constitutional amendments and environmental law • Fourteenth Amendment of the U. S. Constitution • Prohibits denying “equal protection of its laws” • It’s the Constitutional basis for the environmental justice movement • Fifth Amendment = takings clause • Bans the literal taking of private property • Also bans regulatory take, which deprives a property owner of economic uses of the property • There is a sensitive balance between private rights and the public good Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Early U. S. environmental policy • Involved management of public lands, 1780 s to the late 1800 s • Promoted settlement • Extraction of natural resources • Increased prosperity • Relieved crowding in Eastern cities • Displaced millions of Native Americans • People believed that land was infinite and inexhaustible Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The second wave of U. S. policy • Addressed impacts caused by the first wave • Public perception and government policy shifted • Mitigated environmental problems associated with westward expansion • Yellowstone National Park, the world’s first national park, opened in 1872 • Other protected areas were created • National wildlife refuges, parks, and forests • Reflected a new understanding that the West’s resources were exhaustible and required legal protection Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The third wave of U. S. environmental policy • Mid-to late-20 th century • Better off economically • But dirtier air, dirtier water, and more waste and toxic chemicals • Increased awareness of environmental problems shifted public priorities and policy • 1962: Silent Spring (by Rachel Carson) described the negative ecological and health effects of pesticides and industrial chemicals Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Modern U. S. environmental policy • The Cuyahoga River was polluted with oil and industrial waste • It caught fire in the 1950 s and 1960 s • Today, public enthusiasm for environmental protection remains strong • The majority of Americans favor environmental protection • In April, millions of people celebrate Earth Day Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) • 1970 began the modern era of environmental policy • Created the Council on Environmental Quality - Requires an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for any federal action that might impact the environment NEPA forces the government and businesses to evaluate the environmental impacts of a project Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The EPA shifts environmental policy • Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) • Conducts and evaluates research • Monitors environmental quality • Sets and enforces standards for pollution levels • Assists states in meeting standards and goals • Educates the public Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Significant environmental laws • The public demanded a cleaner environment and supported tougher environmental legislation Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The social context for policy can change • Three factors converged to allow major advances in environmental policy in the 1960 s and 1970 s • Wide evidence of environmental problems • People could visualize policies to deal with problems • The political climate was ripe, with a supportive public and leaders who were willing to act • In recent years, the political climate has changed • People felt burdened by environmental regulations • Attempts have been made to roll back or weaken environmental laws Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The Earth Summit Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2002 • The largest international diplomatic conference ever held • It centered on the idea of sustainable development • This fourth wave of environmental policy focuses on sustainable development • Finding ways to safeguard natural systems while raising living standards for the world’s poorest people Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
International Environmental Policy • International issues can be addressed through creative agreements • Montreal Protocol: nations agreed to reduce ozonedepleting chemicals • Kyoto Protocol: reduces fossil fuel emissions causing climate change Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings An international wastewater treatment plant
Organizations help shape international policy • International organizations influence the behavior of nations • Providing funding, applying peer pressure, directing media attention • United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) = helps nations understand solve environmental problems • The European Union seeks to promote Europe’s unity and economic and social progress • Can enact binding regulations • Can also issue advisory directives Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The World Trade Organization (WTO) • Represents multinational corporations to promote free trade • Has authority to impose penalties on nations the don’t comply with its directives • Interprets some environmental laws as unfair barriers to free trade • Brazil and Venezuela filed a complaint against the U. S. EPA’s regulations requiring cleaner-burning fuel • The WTO agreed with Brazil and Venezuela, despite threats to human health • Critics charge the WTO aggravates environmental problems Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
NGOs and the World Bank • Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) = entities that influence international policy • Some do not get politically involved • Others try to shape policy through research, lobbying or protest • The World Bank = one of the world’s largest funding sources for development • Dams, irrigation, infrastructure • Funds unsustainable, environmentally damaging projects Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Science plays a role, but can be politicized • Effective policy decisions are informed by scientific research • Sometimes policymakers ignore science • They let political ideology determine policy • Scientists at government agencies have had their work suppressed or discredited - Their jobs were threatened When taxpayer-funded research is suppressed or distorted for political ends, everyone loses Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Approaches to environmental policy • Command-control approach: environmental policy sets rules or limits and threatens punishment for violators • Heavy-handed • Alternative approaches involve using economic incentives to encourage desired outcomes and use market dynamics to meet goals • Most current environmental laws - Have resulted in safe, healthy, comfortable lives Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Drawbacks of command-control • Government actions may be well-intentioned but not informed • Interest groups–people seeking private gain–unduly influence politicians • Citizens may view policies as restrictions on freedom • Costly and less efficient in achieving goals Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Widespread economic policy tools • Tax breaks = encourage desirable industries or activities • Subsidy = a government giveaway of cash or resources to encourage a particular activity • Have been used to support unsustainable activities In 2003, $58 billion of taxpayer’s money was spent on 68 environmentally harmful subsidies such as building logging roads Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Another economic policy tool • Green taxes = taxes on environmentally harmful activities • Polluter pays principle = the price of a good or service includes all costs, including environmental degradation • Gives companies financial incentives to reduce pollution • But, costs are passed on to consumers Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Market permitting and incentives • Permit trading = government-created market in permits • Businesses buy, sell, trade these permits • Emissions trading system = government-issued permits for an acceptable amount of pollution and companies buy, sell, or trade these permits with other polluters • Cap-and-trade system = a party that reduces its pollution levels can sell this credit to other parties - Pollution is reduced overall, but does increase around polluting plants • Companies have an economic incentive to reduce emissions Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA) federal RCRA delegated administrative authority to the EPA to provide technical and financial assistance to state waste management systems. The act primarily focuses on municipal and industrial nonhazardous wastes. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Clean Air Act (CAA) Federal signed in 1963 amended in 1970. Most air quality regulations in the United States are promulgated and enforced by three federal agencies: EPA. OSHA, and the Mining Safety and Health Administration. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) which establish acceptable concentrations of six criteria pollutants: ozone (O 3), carbon monoxide (CO), Sulfur dioxide (SO 2), lead (Pb), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) and particulate matter (PM 2. 5). Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Clean Water Act The Clean Water Act establishes and maintains goals and standards for U. S. water quality and purity. The goal of the Act was to eliminate the discharge of pollutants into rivers, lakes, streams and other waterways, and to attain, wherever possible, waters deemed "fishable and swimmable. " It has been amended several times, most prominently in 1987 to increase controls on toxic pollutants, and in 1990, to more effectively address the hazard of oil spills. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the main federal law that ensures the quality of Americans' drinking water. Under SDWA, EPA sets standards for drinking water quality and oversees the states, localities, and water suppliers who implement those standards. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Tragedy of the Commons is more readily referred to in environmental science issues such as sustainability Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Superfund = CERCL Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act - also know as Superfund: Federal The Superfund takes its name from the pool of money collected by the government to finance the clean-up of hazardous dump sites. It also includes a controversial funding mechanism-retroactive liability assessed to any party who disposed of waste in a particular site. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Endangered Species Act (ESA) provides a program for the conservation of threatened and endangered plants and animals and the habitats in which they are found. Led to the formation of the U. S Fish & Wildlife Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries Service. Maintains a worldwide list of endangered species. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The Dust Bowl in the 1930’s was a result of a drought combined with decades of farming without crop rotation. The Soil Conservation Act was passed in 1935 as a direct response from Congress to the Dust Bowl. The act established the Soil Conservation Service to deal with erosion problems housed under the US Dept. of Agriculture. The act paid subsidies to farmers to leave the land fallow or plant crops that returned Nitrogen to the soil as well as financed research into soil conservation. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act established a National Wild and Scenic Rivers System for the protection of rivers with important scenic, recreational, fish and wildlife, and other values. Rivers are classified as wild, scenic or recreational Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The Waste Reduction Act’s purpose is to reduce and prevent the production and disposal of waste in the province consistent with the principles of sustainable development. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Solid waste Municipal solid waste landfills (MFWLFs) receive household waste. MSWLFs can also receive non-hazardous sludge, industrial solid waste, and construction and demolition debris. All MSWLFs must comply with the federal regulations in 40 CFR Part 258 (Subtitle D of RCRA), or equivalent state regulations. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Federal MSWLF standards include: • Location restrictions—ensure that landfills are built in suitable geological areas away from faults, wetlands, flood plains, or other restricted areas. • Composite liners requirements—include a flexible membrane (geomembrane) overlaying two feet of compacted clay soil lining the bottom and sides of the landfill, protect groundwater and the underlying soil from leachate releases. • Leachate collection and removal systems—sit on top of the composite liner and removes leachate from the landfill for treatment and disposal. • Operating practices—include compacting and covering waste frequently with several inches of soil help reduce odor; control litter, insects, and rodents; and protect public health. • Groundwater monitoring requirements—requires testing groundwater wells to determine whether waste materials have escaped from the landfill. • Closure and postclosure care requirements—include covering landfills and providing long-term care of closed landfills. • Corrective action provisions—control and clean up landfill releases and achieves groundwater protection standards. • Financial assurance—provides funding for environmental protection during and after landfill closure (i. e. , closure and postclosure care). Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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