Theme Equity and Teacher Education Management Proportionate allocations

Theme : Equity and Teacher Education Management; Proportionate allocations in teacher education programmes and competences for managing classroom diversity • • • Therese, M. S. Tchombe Ph. D Emeritus Professor UNESCO Chair For Special Needs Education/IE University of Buea Cameroon

Outline § Introduction § Concept of education & knowledge in teacher education § The importance of knowledge of Subject Matter § Situating some theories and their significance for teacher education § Personal epistemologies of teachers and children: implications for teacher education § “Differential Pedagogy” as a function of developmental paths and life experiences § Entry requirements and duration § Teacher educators can make a difference § Case studies I & II and lessons learnt § Reflexions for the way forward § Conclusion and Recommendations

Introduction § Equity in education focuses more on quantitative dimension such as equal access to resources from gender and other perspectives § An understanding of education, knowledge and developmental process begs for other dimensions for judging equity that is qualitative § Does each discipline in the programme has equal opportunity to contribute adequately to teacher development and empowerment? § The implications for curriculum design and planning including the quality of teacher educators are vitally important.

Cont. § Teaching is about decision making on issues of identification, selection, monitoring and managing of complex and extensive information and activities by female and male teachers. § Stimulating motivation and comprehension become important for learning. § Focusing on learning as a process determines the highest level of quality in learning § These orientations cannot be acted out in isolation of a theoretical base and a view about the nature of the expected performance (Sullivan and Mousley, 1998) § Specific teaching functions employ a series of competences and skill, which have been verified systematically for effective teaching. Such reflections demonstrate that the teaching act cannot afford to be mechanical and so all components of the education is needed.

Cont § The challenges at the door step of teacher education is how proportionate allocations in teacher education programmes are expected to indicate the connections between outcomes and the process by which outcomes are achieved § Quality management of the strength and potential of each course or discipline is bound to be the ideal § These courses constitute a network of an interdependent dimension of components of teachers’ professional and academic knowledge which must be given equal attention in teacher development

Cont. Teacher education must review its programme in terms of required competences and skills to address the myriad of expectations such as: § Dealing with non-graded and multi-age pupils, whereby the chronological age and mental age do not correspond § Handling diversity which is a major problem requiring inclusive practices to address the differences and overcome barriers to learning. § Managing Early childhood care and education; a critical level in education § Encouraging pupils to assume responsibility, develop self-direction, selfregulation and self-efficacy and positive attitudes towards learning § Coping with new subjects entering the curriculum with teachers facing the challenges of understanding the structure of the subjects pedagogically

Cont. § For the last ten decades, there has been competing conceptual views on teacher education in Cameroon and Africa as a whole § Yet most governments attempting to review teacher education policy do not still have a clear vision of what is expected of teachers and what should constitute their profile because the colonial model still dominates § Policy is more at the level of prescription of “what” not of “how "nor of “who” § Accordingly, reflections on classroom activities underscore that teachers respond most of the time to prescriptions with no attention to quality interactions and learning outcomes § Inferring that teacher education programmes to an extent only provide teachers with survival skills to handle and cope with classroom routines, rituals and glossing over what pupils can do.

Concept of Education & Knowledge in Teacher education needs to focus on the two meanings of education: a). as a process & b). as a discipline Education as a process focuses on our manner of knowing, that is, our approved standard of competence in performance, inquiry, reasoning and thinking (Scheffler 1978). This entails not only process but also knowledge. Teacher educators should be able to tell, if each course offered is given the opportunity through appropriate pedagogy to contribute to the building of teachers’ competences, skills, values and beliefs.

Cont. § Education as practical activity sets out to describe processes of learning by which knowledge and understanding are gained. § Education as location provides the context where the processes of communication of knowledge and organisation of learning take place which also has cultural implications. § From these two perspectives education is educative in so far as it recognises its concern for both process and location. Challenges faced is the continuous dependency of African Education systems on colonial approaches ignoring new paradigms including accent on indigenous learning and pedagogic practices in teacher education.

Cont. Knowledge is central and varies across disciplines and academic levels and a theory of knowledge guides educational engagements. § Teacher education’s perception of knowledge that student teachers must acquire § What are the processes through which knowledge develops? Great philosophers in education raised three views to explain knowledge: § Rationalism; Plato sees the basis of knowledge in the power of reason. § Empiricism; John Locke and others focus on the power of observation and association. § Pragmatism; Dewey focuses on the power of experimental character of empirical science with emphasis upon the active phase of experiment. How has teacher education exploit these philosophical interpretations of knowledge for developing teachers’ skills and competences?

Cont. Two types of knowledge can be contrasted: action knowledge as meaningful versus school knowledge. § School knowledge is seen more often as rote knowledge than meaningful but how the teacher teaches provide knowledge that would form the basis for understanding and interpretation, thus meaningful knowledge § Criteria for rigorous scholarship necessary for true education are drawn from education disciplines that form the basis for educational theory. § These prescribe guiding principles for the scientific knowledge in the teaching profession as it regulates professional knowledge that constitutes systems of ideas and practices guiding the teaching act and research. § “Indeed, the more reliable and efficient a system of education becomes, the more firmly will its techniques and aims be grounded in scientific findings” (O’Connor 1965, p. 93). § The actual knowledge of the teaching profession resides in content, method, learner and context

Cont. § Teaching as a profession in education, like medicine and engineering consists of a set of practicable activities with underlying principles governing their activities. § Of the four main disciplines in education, it is psychology that is most relevant to the teachers’ work. There has nevertheless been a relative neglect of social and clinical psychology which respond to immediate problems of the classroom such as the diagnosis of learning difficulties, factors influencing teachers’ perceptions of pupils and the way in which teachers and pupils influence each other’s behaviours.

Cont. § Schulman (1990) holds that teachers need to understand the educational aims and values on which practice depends § Pedagogical content knowledge presents a transformative model that addresses knowledge needed for classroom teaching(Gess Newsome & Lederman (1999) Chapter 1). Kraus, S. et al( 2008) defined three main components of pedagogical content knowledge as: § Knowledge of tasks § Knowledge of students prior knowledge § Knowledge of instructional methods § Addressing also the context of knowledge

The importance of knowledge of Subject Matter For example, Chomsky (1957) in the case of language teaching, sees competence as knowledge of the language system; grammatical knowledge. This refers to specific competence § But for classroom purpose, competence ought to be the overall underlying knowledge and ability for language use which the speakerlistener possesses. § This is far more than knowledge of grammar and teachers would require both specific and generic competences to address teaching. § Language teaching and learning like any other disciplines is skills development not content acquisition, thus the focus on process

Contextualisation of theories and practices § Quality in teacher preparation is crucial where the focus is on what kinds of knowledge and skills in teaching have been identified as worth learning § Theory informs reflective practice just as practice validates theory by enforcing processes that encourage more knowing in action and doing at individuals’ levels and rates. § The goal of initial and in-service teacher education is seen as no less than the transformation both of teachers’ perspectives and of teacher education (Diamond, 1991) § The theory-driven character of teacher education is being quarried as inadequate for competent professional training

Cont. § Dewey’s epistemological approach sees the starting point in the educative process to be the relation between knowledge and action which can be linked to theories § Jean Piaget, sees the construction of knowledge as emerging from the manipulation of physical environment and social interaction with others § Jerome Bruner, focuses on the relationship between inquiry–based learning and the structure of knowledge and use of cultural tools § Lev Vygotsky, sees the construction of knowledge and understanding as a social process thus his views on the Zone of Proximal development and scaffolding are vital for inclusive practices and early childhood care and education. § For psychological processes that are affective Erikson, Freud and Carls Rogers and Maslow provide valuable orientations.

Cont. § Constructivism, social–constructivism and social learning theories have indicated major principles for building teachers’ capacity and skills § Practice requires appropriate teacher preparation irrespective of gender so they can be able to engage the learner in cooperative and collaborative learning with peers. § The significance of constructivism is that it emphasises agency and previous knowledge of learners including the socio-cultural context of learning. § Dewey (1997) emphasised the place of experience indicating that students learn in different ways depending on their motivation and other factors.

Maslow/Rogers/ Motivation Vygotsky/Bruner/ Bandura/ Peers Piaget/ Individual Dewey/ Experience Theoretical Orientation for Pedagogic Practices Lave/Situation

Other Supporting Theories § Gagne’s eight learning phases explains what the learner goes through and how teachers can support § Gagne’s theory of instruction is crucial for the teacher as it informs on valuable strategies to engage the learner through pedagogic technics. How are teachers trained to enhance retention and transfer? § Bloom’s six levels of educational Taxonomy which though still valuable has been revised given the entry of technology in practice. § What proportion of teacher education is allocated to these theories that should help teachers engage in transformative practices that should address pupils’ minds

Personal Epistemologies (Teachers and Children, Implication for Teacher Education § Teachers as well as pupils come to each class with their own beliefs and held values about knowledge § They also hold beliefs regarding the sources and development of knowledge § Teachers are deprived of power by putting the production and distribution of knowledge about teaching into the hands of politicians, § Prescriptions at policy level do not address context specific realities of the field thus impacting training implicitly.

Cont § Teacher education should engage in promoting personal discovery and not the mechanistic training of how to teach § Teacher education should emphasise meaning making in teaching § Children’s epistemology is based on their own personal and cultural experiences, impact of prior knowledge and expectations. § An important point is that no learner has a deficient epistemological approach to knowledge and retrieval but has a different and unique epistemological approach which can be developed through teacher’s constructivist pedagogical approaches

“Differential Pedagogy” as a function of developmental paths & life experiences and teachers education § Teacher education need to arm teachers with knowledge and pedagogy so their teaching practices in an inclusive classroom will enable each child to participate through the use of ; § Collaborative teaching/learning § Cooperative learning § Group work and peer interaction § Scaffolding § Teacher’s personal development gap in teacher education must be addressed if differential pedagogy must engage in equity as a process in diversity in classrooms § Teachers’ competences, skills, attitudes and values play a great role for quality engagements of pupils individually

Entry Requirements and course duration § The question that the above poses is whether the entry requirement and duration are adequate for the types of knowledge and skills required for teaching? § Four GCE “O” Levels 3 yrs =16 yrs Ed. § One GCE “A” Levels 2 yrs = 17 yrs Ed. § Two or more GCE “A” Level 1 yr= 16 yrs. Ed. § Furthermore, is the allocation of courses on the different dimensions of teacher development proportionate to the training demands of certain competences and skills and future expectations? § Are teacher educators themselves qualified to address these needs?

Cont. § Traditional models of primary and secondary teacher education includes three basic components; academic preparation in subjects or disciplines that will be taught in schools; theoretical foundations of professional education in education disciplines and teaching practice or practicum § How are student teachers educated to teach any of the disciplines as a process rather than as a body of knowledge? § How can they use the process of any of the subjects of the primary curriculum to enable pupils learn the subject? § What proportion of time and course contents are allocated for different specialisations? § The lack of emphasis on courses like arts, music and dance in teacher education is a serious problem, as these have potentials for enhancing psychosocial development and highlight much of African traditions, valuable for inclusive practices and for teaching specific concepts and skills in nursery and primary schools.

Teacher Educators can make a difference On the following during training: § Create a differentiated learning environment for the development of higher psychological functioning for all groups of children with student teachers § Clarify expectations, outcomes, & procedures related to tasks to ensure flexible group activities. § Create opportunities for peer-to-peer interactions as they learn content & develop their use of academic knowledge § Support class participation in activities such as group presentations, shared experiences, and encouraging pupils’ initiatives and use of motivation § Inculcate “incremental” belief( responsive) rather than “entity” belief (ability is fixed)(Glenn, 2007; Glenn, Schwartz & Jordan 2007) in students

Case Studies : Case I Transnational Research § Illustrations of case studies and their reviews provide opportunities to identify best practices, gaps in teacher preparation such as relating theory to practices, showing limitations in policy, knowing the learner, new strategies and research approaches From our transnational research, we identified common issues such as: § Learners with disabilities and other disadvantages were found in regular schools but inclusive practices did not exist as such § Policy not well defined, so orientations for teacher education and practice were minimal § No clear teacher inclusive profile § Poor knowledge about inclusive education by administrators at all levels of education in each country § Absence of knowledge generally and of theories in particular § The importance of the study is its impact on creating awareness

Recommendations from Case I § Since there already learners in regular schools who need to be helped to learn, teachers and school administrators have to be trained immediately to handle these learners. These can be done by developing a training manual for teachers and school administrators for all countries with some sections specific to each country § Build the capacity of school administrators and policy makers of each country so that they may not only understand the need for policy on IE but ensure that it is developed and there is policy at national, regional and school levels § Develop a simple assessment tool that will help teachers to identify children with disabilities and other vulnerable children found in regular schools § Clarify the definition of the concept of inclusion

Some lessons on values & competencies valuable for teacher education (EU Organisation for Special Education 2012 & Tuning: Joint Africa-EU Strategy 2013 ): Case II Four core values identified by EU for special Education for inclusive teacher profile: § Valuing learner diversity § Supporting all learners § Working with others § Continuing personal professional development § EU for special education’s research findings have been very informative on issues of equity and inclusion

Cont. From EU Identifies four areas for teacher education for Africa : (Tuning 2013) §Context §Knowledge/Understanding & Practice §Interpersonal Skills §Values & Ethics § 18 generic and 31 specific competences for African teacher education meta-profile

Cont. Some basic skills and competences are evident: § Ability for conceptual thinking, analysis and synthesis and translate knowledge into practice § Flexibility and adaptability § Capacity to use innovative and appropriate technologies § Ability to learn and capacity for lifelong learning § Professionalism and commitment § Giving a sense of belonging and connectedness § Leadership, management and team work skills § Communication and interpersonal skills § Entrepreneurship spirit and skills

Attitudes & Values as related to self, others & subject matter Concept of Knowledge as a whole, content & discipline Theoretical knowledge of development, learning & differences. Skills &Techniques to manage classroom diversity Generic & Specific competences Generic and Specific competences Generic & Specific Competences Proportionate Allocation in Teacher Education Management: Academic, Professional, Personal Development & Research Skills Policy: Define Entry qualifications, Types of Programmes & Duration, Implementation; Initial, In-service, Workshops, & Seminars, School base Tr. Monitoring & Evaluation of Programme management • Generic Competences: General pedagogy knowledge & pedagogic content knowledge • Specific Competences: , Curriculum Knowledge • NB: Generic and specific competences constitute the Meta –profile for Teachers (Tuning 2013 Report)

Concern Focus Influence Equity in coverage in all critical components of the programmes supported by quality teacher educators Personal development in managing inclusive practices =PROCESS & also culture & research skills and making them good role models Equity in all aspect of teacher ed. should include quality outcomes, relevance in practice & action for all levels of teacher education.

Conclusion § Education courses are the most formal and systematic part of learning to teach because of the exposure to the knowledge base of the profession. § Teacher's knowledge of self is crucial as a more substantial part of the agenda of learning teaching. § Personal qualities affect professional output. Improving on theoretical knowledge of teacher education will enable teachers better understand, criticize and appreciate their practices and develop research skill. § Define end teacher profile for teacher education to achieve its objective in terms of skills, competences and values.

Reflexions for the way forward Four issues are highlighted: § Create opportunities for capacity building for teacher educators through exchange for the development of an international teacher education § Provide institutions with information communication technological (ICT)tools to enhance the development of new competences and pedagogical skills for sustainable teaching and learning § Employ distance education to give basic education teachers access to university degree in Nursery and Primary Education as motivation, to ensure quality and reduce attrition § Support the strengthening of teacher education in developing institutional capacity for caring and managing vulnerable and disabled pupils

Cont. § Teachers need a body of professional knowledge necessary for teaching (Shulman 1986, 1987). § The challenges of educating a teacher are evidently enormous because teaching calls not for one specific skill in a given area but for an immensely wide range of knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviours and values. § Proportionate allocation across all courses for skills and competences development will be helpful § Pre-service and In-service teacher education programmes must not only be based on the state- of-the- art knowledge derived from contemporary educational practices but must also prepare teachers capable of grasping new opportunities to be able to meet new challenges

Cont. § Professional problems in teacher education and practices is related more to developing teaching strategies (Popkewitz, 1994). § Teacher education through its foundation courses must raise awareness of the complexities of teaching strategies for effective decision making.

Recommendations § Address equity in making proportionate allocations in teacher education programmes is a way of addressing some the MDGs and the EFA goals through teacher empowerment § Build teachers’ competences and skills with the aim of empowering all children through inclusive practices § Strengthen teachers’ self-efficacy and self-esteem through their education § Increase budgetary allocations for teachers’ professional development § Strengthen teachers’ pedagogical accountability § Address gender equity in the profession as pedagogic strategy to have appropriated role models for pupils to imitate and learn from § Bridge the gaps between policies and practices by involving teachers in decision making § Build teacher educators’ capacity

Some References § Bruner , J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press § Curzon L. B. (1990), Teaching in further Education: an outline of principles and. Practice. London: Cassell Education Limited § Dewey, J. (1997) Experience and Education New York: A Touchstone Book § European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2012, Odense, Denmark. § Diamond, C. , T. , P. (1991). Teacher as Transformation. Milton Keynes, Philadelphia: Open University Press § Hartley, D. (1992). Professional Issues in Education teacher appraisal. A policy analysis, Edinburgh: Scottish Academic press.

Cont. § Shulman, L. S. (1990), Pedagogical ways of knowing. Key note address at the ICET World Assembly. § Sullivan, P. And Mousley, J. (1997), Promoting Professional Qualities of Teachers and Teacher Educators Unpublished paper presented at ICET World Assembly, Muscate in the Sultanate of Ouman. § Tuning: Joint Africa-EU Strategy Tuning Seminars, Fourth General Meeting, Nairobi, 2325 January, 2013: 180. § O’Conner, G. J. (1965), An introduction to the philosophy of Education. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul § Popkewitz, T. S. (1994), Professionalisation in teaching and teacher Education. Some notes on its History, ideology, and potential. Teaching and Teacher Education. Vol 10 No 1. pp 1 -14 Vygotsky, L. , S. , (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

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