Empires in Collision Europe the Middle East East

Empires in Collision Europe, the Middle East, & East Asia 1800 -1900 Objective: Examine the effects of Western dominance on the empires of Asia

Reversal of Fortune: China’s Century of Crisis • China had continued the pattern of the previous several centuries, during which Chinese authorities had strictly controlled & limited the activities of European missionaries & merchants • By 1912, China’s long established imperial state had collapsed, & the country transformed from a central presence in the global economy to a weak & dependent participant in a Europeandominated world system

Crisis Within • China saw a drastic increase in their population but no Industrial Revolution accompanied this vast increase in population • Agriculture production wasn’t able to keep up the population increase • Pressure increased on small farmers while they faced unemployment, impoverishment, misery, & starvation • China’s government couldn’t manage the population increase & was unable to effectively perform its many functions • European military pressure & economic penetration also disrupted internal trade routes along with a variety of other things

Crisis Within • Taiping Uprising: massive Chinese rebellion against the ruling Qing dynasty that devastated much of the country between 1850 & 1864 • Hong Xiuquan claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus, sent to cleanse the world of demons • They called for the abolition of private property, a radical redistribution of land, the end of prostitution & opium smoking • They fought for women equality & the end to foot binding

Crisis Within • Division & indecisiveness within the Taiping leadership, along with their inability to link up with several other groups provided an opening for Qing dynasty loyalists to rally & crush the rebellion • This ultimately weakened the Chinese government • It took China more than a decade to recover from this rebellion/civil war

Western Pressures • The British found an enormous, growing, & very profitable market for the highly addictive drug Opium • Chinese authorities outlawed the drug but it was still smuggled into China • China found itself with million of addicts • A Chinese official Commissioner Lin Zexu led the campaign against opium use • Offended by the seizure of their property, the British sent a naval fleet to end the restrictive trade in China

Western Pressures • Opium Wars: Two wars fought between Western powers & China after China tried to restrict the importation of foreign goods • The Chinese defeat ended with unequal treaties that seriously eroded China’s independence by the end of the century • By the end of the century, the Western nations plus Japan & Russia had carved out spheres of influence within China • China became part of a European-based informal empire; an area dominated by Western powers but retaining its own government & measure of independence

The Failure of Conservative Modernization • Some Chinese used “self-strengthening” to reinvigorate a traditional China while borrowing cautiously from the West • They repaired irrigation while building industrial factories • However, this change was met by opposition from the conservative leaders • While the new industries remained dependent on foreigners • Boxer Rebellion: anti-foreign movement led by Chinese militia organizations, in which large numbers of Europeans & Chinese Christians were killed • When the rebellion was crushed, Western Powers imposed a huge payment on China as punishment

The Failure of Conservative Modernization • The Qing Dynasty was ineffective in protecting China • Chinese people began to admire Western science & technology but also Western political practices that limited the authority of the ruler & permitted wider circles of people to take part in public life • Chinese Revolution of 19111912: the collapse of China’s imperial order

The Ottoman Empire & the West in the Nineteenth Century • Islamic Civilization was a neighbor to Europe for 1000 years • The Ottoman Empire was a clear military & religious threat to Europe in the 16 th & 17 th century • China & the Ottoman empire didn’t fall under direct colonial rule but both were diminished as the changing balance of global power took hold

“The Sick Man of Europe” • In 1750, the Ottoman Empire was still the central political fixture of a widespread Islamic world • Its ruler, the Sultan, claimed the role of caliph, successor to the Prophet Muhammad • The Sultan was viewed as the leader, defender, & primary representative of the Islamic world • “The Sick Man of Europe”: Western Europe’s description of the Ottoman Empire in the 19 th century based on the empire’s economic & military weakness & its apparent inability to prevent the shrinking of its territory

“The Sick Man of Europe” • India, Indonesia, West Africa, Central Asia fell under the control of European Christian powers • Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, & Romania achieved independence based on their own surging nationalism • The central Ottoman state had weakened in its ability to raise necessary revenue • Their land losses prevented them from direct oceanic accesses limiting their trading • Like China, the Ottoman Empire had fallen into a position of considerable dependency on Europe

Reform & Its Opponents • The leadership of the Ottoman Empire recognized many of its problems & during the nineteenth century mounted increasingly ambitious programs of “defensive modernization” • Sultan Selim III sought to reorganize & update the army • However, these changes were meet with opposition & Selim was overthrown & murdered • Tanzimat: the Ottoman leadership sough to provide the economic, social, & legal foundations for a strong & newly recentralized state • They began the process of modernization & westernization

Reform & Its Opponents • Although Tanzimat-era reforms did not directly address gender issues, they did stimulate modest educational openings for women • The Young Ottomans were actively seeking major changes in the Ottoman political system itself • They favored European-style parliamentary & constitutional regime • They felt they needed to overcome their backwardness to preserve the state against European aggression

Reform & Its Opponents • Sultan Abd al-Hamid II implemented a constitution & elected a parliament but soon suspended his reforms • Opposition to the government surfaced among both military & civilian elites known as the Young Turks • They abandoned any reference to Islam advocating for a militantly secular public life • A military coup in 1908 allowed the Young Turks to exercise real power & implemented drastic changes • The nationalist Turkish conception of Ottoman identity antagonized non-Turkic peoples & helped stimulate Arab & other nationalism in response

Outcomes: Comparing China & the Ottoman Empire • China & the Ottoman Empire were now informal colonies but retained their independence • Their governments launched campaigns to catch up with the West • China & the Ottoman Empire gave rise to new nationalist conceptions of society that were initially small but of greater significance for the future • China rejected traditional Confucian culture while modern Turkey rejected Islam • Islam however retained a hold on its civilization more firmly that Confucianism did in China

The Japanese Difference: The Rise of a New East Asian Power • Like China & the Ottoman Empire, the island country of Japan confronted the aggressive power of the West during the 19 th century • In the 2 nd half of the 19 th century, Japan undertook a radical transformation of its society • This radical transformation turned them into a powerful, modern, united, & industrialized nation • Japan joined the club of imperialist countries by creating its own East Asian empire at the expense of China & Korea

The Tokugawa Background • Japan had been governed by a shogun (a military ruler) from the Tokugawa family who acted in the name of the revered but powerless emperor • Their task was to prevent an rebellions & create internal peace • Feudal Lords known as daimyo kept most of their independence which prevented unity in Japan • Tokugawa Japan: a period of internal peace in Japan that prevented civil war but did not fully unify the country; led by military rulers who established a “closed door” policy towards the Europeans

The Tokugawa Background • Samurai in the absence of wars to fight, evolved into a salaried bureaucratic or administrative class • They remained loyal to their daimyo lords & to their warrior code of loyalty, honor, & selfsacrifice • The peace in Japan contributed to a remarkable burst of economic growth, commercialization, & urban development • Well-functioning networks of exchange linked urban & rural areas, marking Japan as an-emerging market economy • The influence of Confucianism encouraged education

The Tokugawa Background • These changes provided a solid foundation for Japan’s remarkable industrial growth in the late 19 th century • Merchants had money, but little status, while samurai enjoyed high status but were often indebted to inferior merchants • Despite prohibitions many peasants moved to the cities • Corruption was widespread & the shogunate’s failure to deal successfully with a severe famine in 1830 s eroded confidence in its effectiveness • A wave of local peasant uprising & urban riots expressed the many grievances of the poor

American Intrusion & the Meiji Restoration • Japan had deliberately limited its contact with the West to a single port, where only the Dutch were allowed to trade • Japan agreed to a series of unequal treaties with various Western powers • This humiliating surrender to the Western power triggered a civil war • Meiji Restoration: political take over of Japan by a group of young samurai to restore the young emperor, Meiji • They wanted to save Japan from foreign domination but also transform Japanese society to be more like Western Europe

Modernization Japanese-Style • The first task of the Meiji was to create national unity, which required an attack on the power & privileges of the daimyo & the samurai • The Meiji ended the semi-independent domains of the daimyo, replacing them with governors appointed by & responsible to the national government • The samurai relinquished their ancient roles as the country’s warrior class • The old Confucian-based social order with its special privileges for various classes was largely dismantled

Modernization Japanese-Style • In Japan there was also a widespread & eager fascination with almost everything Western • Civilization & Enlightenment was their slogan as a country • However, this initial wave of uncritical enthusiasm for everything Western receded • Japan proceeded to borrow more selectively & to combine foreign & Japanese elements in distinctive ways with Western ideas • For example, loyalty was still dedicated to the emperor • Their earlier experience in selective borrowing helped the Japanese adapt

Modernization Japanese-Style • Many argued that oppression of women was an obstacle to the country’s modernization & that family reform was essential to gaining the respect of the West • However, most male reformers understood women largely in the context of family life, seeing them as “good wife, wise mother” • At the core of Japan’s effort at defensive modernization lay its state-guided industrialization program • Taxed heavily to pay for Japan’s ambitious modernization program, many peasant families slid into poverty • Women were often exploited for women in textile industries

Japan & the World • Japan’s modern transformations soon registered internationally • Japan’s economic growth, openness to trade, & embrace of “civilization & enlightenment” from the West persuaded the Western powers to revise the unequal treaties in Japan’s favor • The Japanese launched its own empirebuilding enterprise • Russo-Japanese War: fought over rival ambitions in Korea & China, this conflict ended with Japanese victory • Japan became the first major Asian country to defeat a European country

Japan & the World • The Russian defeat shocked them & triggered the 1905 revolution in Russia • To Europeans & Americans, Japan was now an economic, political, & military competitor in Asia • The rise of Japan generated widespread admiration • However, those who directly experienced Japanese imperialism since their colonial practices matched or exceeded the brutality of European practices