Conflict of Interest Disclosure I have no conflict

Conflict of Interest Disclosure I have no conflict of interest to report in relation to this presentation.

Indicators of Affordability of Nutritious Diets in Africa (IANDA): Methods and Results for Ghana and Tanzania William A. Masters Friedman School of Nutrition Science & Policy, Tufts University (USA) Project collaborators: Anna Herforth Tufts University Yan Bai Tufts University Jennifer C. Coates Daniel B. Sarpong Zachary Gersten Rebecca Heidkamp Tufts University of Ghana Johns Hopkins University Fulgence Mishili and Joyce Kinabo Sokoine University (Tanzania)

With rapid change in food environments, are nutritious diets becoming easier to buy, or further out of reach?

With rapid change in food environments, are nutritious diets becoming easier to buy, or further out of reach? The IANDA project (2016 -17) developed a set of metrics to answer this question – Pilot in Ghana and Tanzania, with academic partners – Local stakeholder workshops with government & NGO officials • project inception in April 2016 (Accra) and June 2016 (Dar-es-Salaam) • validation & dissemination of results in July 2017 (Accra and Dar-es-Salaam) – International meeting presentations for feedback and dissemination • 14 including at FAO (Rome), CFS, AAEA (2017), AERC (2017, Nairobi), etc Results show clear potential for policy & program impact – Dialogue around metrics brought key parties together • Ag. (commodity markets), Min of Finance (retail prices), Health & NGOs – In Ghana, led to expansion of Mo. FA data collection to additional foods • Improved metrics can spur demand for data, and availability/access to information – For ag-nutrition researchers, offer specific formulas & results

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion IANDA identified four kinds of indicators • Unit-free indexes that track change over time – Nutritious-food Price Index (NPI) • Weight prices by food scores, instead of spending level as in CPI – Cost of Diet Diversity (Co. DD) • Uses least-cost food from the lowest-cost food groups to reach MDD-W • Cost-per-day values that specify quantities needed – Cost of a Recommended Diet (Co. RD): • weights each price by quantities in the recommended diet – Cost of Nutrient Adequacy (Co. NA): • the least-cost combination of foods to meet nutrient needs

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Existing food price indexes are weighted by market value and say little about nutritional value World food commodity prices, 2014 -2017 For global commodity prices, the FAO Food Price Index consists of five commodity group price indices, weighted with average export shares of each of the groups for 2002 -2004. Total of 23 commodities (73 prices), in 5 groups: Source: www. fao. org/worldfoodsituation, 29 Sept. 2017 • Cereals -- wheat (11), maize (1), rice (16) • Oils/Fats -- soybean, sunflower, rapeseed, groundnut, cottonseed, copra, palm kernel, palm, linseed, castor (1 each) • Dairy -- whole milk powder, skim milk powder, cheese (2 each), cheese (1) • Meat -- poultry (13), beef (7), pork (6), sheep (1) • Sugar -- sugar (1)

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Within a consumer price index, food price trends and fluctuations differ greatly by type of food Local food prices in the United States, 1970 -2016 (index values, 1982=100) Retail prices Food away from home (restaurants etc. ) Food at home (groceries) Wholesale prices Processed food & feed Unprocessed food and feed Source: US. Bureau of Labor Statistics, downloaded 29 Sept. 2017. Definitions and chart data are available at http: //myf. red/g/ff 6 v

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion How might we measure the cost and affordability of a nutritious diet? • For foods actually consumed, a very long history – Fleetwood (1707) food price index = 5 ‘quarters’ of wheat, 4 ‘hogsheads’ of beer – Lowe (1823) different baskets for different socioeconomic groups – Jevons (1865), Laspeyres (1871) and many others lead to modern CPI • For affordability of dietary energy, a long history and wide use – Playfair (1821) chart of wheat prices and wages from 1565 to 1821 – Sukhatme (1961) and FAO’s Prevalence of Undernourishment in calories – Drewnowski (2004) measure of energy cost ($/kcal) and density (kcal/kg) • For nutrient adequacy, more recent history and many specific uses – Stigler (1945) linear programming to compute least-cost diets – USDA Thrifty Food Plan for US nutrition assistance (1975, 1983, 1999, 2006) – SCUK Cost of Diet tool (2009) and FANTA et al. Optifood (2012) for aid programs • We also introduce three new concepts: – A nutritionally-weight price index (using Nu. Val points, from 1 to 100) – A cost of diet diversity index (at least one from each of at least 5 food groups) – A cost of recommended diets index (with quantities from local dietary guidelines)

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Food prices can come from many different sources How are food prices now being collected and used? Market information & price monitoring Ghana Mo. FA enumerator collecting food price data Actor Purpose Agricultural & food agencies Financial & statistical agencies Inform farmers, traders, distributors Measure real income, inflation, poverty Traded commodities, often a few key staple Products foods and cash crops at wholesale markets Photo: Anna Herforth, 2017 National accounts & poverty monitoring Individual prices may be available upon request; Access Private sources charge for subscriptions Retail products, often a long list of over 50 standardized items from urban supermarkets Aggregate indexes reported annually, quarterly or monthly; Item-level prices are sometimes confidential

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion The IANDA project helped Ghana Mo. FA expand price data collection to include more diverse foods White Roots Cereals and Tubers Plantain Pulses Maize Yam Plantain Cowpea (white) Millet Cocoyam Soya bean Sorghum Cassava Bambara Bean Rice Gari Sweet potato Cassava dough Dried cassava Meat, Poultry and Fish Beef Pork Salted dried fish Live chicken bird Smoked herring Anchovy Fresh fish Chicken meat Snail Goat meat Mutton Vegetables Tomato Garden Egg Okro Onion Ginger Pepper Cabbage Lettuce Carrot Dark Green Leafy Vegetables Nuts and Seeds Groundnut (unsh) Nkontommire Groundnut (red) Jute mallow Melon Seeds Alefu (Amaranthus) Fruits Mango Pineapple Palm fruit Watermelon Orange Banana Coconut Avocado Pawpaw Egg Seed Oil Coconut oil Palm oil Groundnut oil Dairy Fresh Cow Milk ports e R e c i r rket P a M y l k l foods e a e n W o i t s i ’ a d Ghan e the ad d u kets l r c a n i m r n o o j will so r 20 ma o f , d e r in marked

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Standard food CPI counts each food in proportion to actual consumption We can use nutrition scores instead • Standard food CPI: – f. CPI = ∑ipiwi , where pi and wi are prices and weights in consumer spending weights each price by quantities actually chosen • Nutritious-food PI (NPI): – NPI = ∑ipini , where ni is a health score, eg Nu. Va. L from 1 (worst) to 100 (best) weighting each price by its nutritional value § Nutrition scores aim to guide food choices § We use them to measure whether more nutritious foods are becoming more expensive

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion In Ghana, have more nutritious foods become more expensive than other foods? NPI CPI Jul Oct 2017 Apr Apr 2016 Oct Jul Apr 2015 Oct Jul Apr 2014 Oct Jul Apr 2013 Oct Jul Apr 2012 Prices of more nutritious foods rose less than prices of other foods Food Price Indexes in Tamale, 2012 -2017 Apr 2016 Oct Jul Apr 2015 Oct Jul Apr 2014 Oct Jul . . . but in Tamale from 2012 to 2014, the opposite occurred Apr 2013 CPI Oct Jul NPI Apr 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 Food Price Indexes in Greater Accra, 2012 -2017 2012 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion A popular metric of diet quality is diversity We follow the MDD-W is defined as ≥ 5 of these 10 food groups in past 24 hrs (1) Starchy staples (Grains, white roots/tubers, plantains) (2) Pulses (beans, peas and lentils – includes soybeans) (3) Nuts and seeds (higher fat than pulses, includes groundnuts) (4) Flesh foods (meat, poultry and fish) (5) Dark green leafy vegetables (6) Other vit. A-rich fruits & vegetables (7) Other vegetables; (8) Other fruits; (9) Eggs; (10) Dairy

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion We can measure the cost of reaching MDD-W with the least-cost food in each group MDD-W has a direct economic interpretation • • Within groups, all foods are equal substitutes Each group meets different needs, and also contributes to energy balance Groups can be ranked by cost towards total daily energy balance People with at least five groups are likely to reach adequacy thresholds The cost of reaching MDD-W can be defined as: • Cost of Diet Diversity (Co. DD): – Co. DD = Min 5{min{pi 1}, min{pi 2}, …, min{pim}} the least-cost way to include at least one food from at least 5 food groups – Co. DD 2 = Ave{min{pi 1}, min{pi 2}, …, min{pim}} the least-cost way to include at least one food from any 5 of the 10 food groups

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion The least-cost food in each group may vary Foods counted for the Cost of Diet Diversity (Co. DD) in Ghana, 2009 -14 In Ghana, foods in the five lowestcost groups are: 5. Fish or banana 4. Mangoes 3. Groundnuts 2. Soya 1. Maize or cassava Note: if we ranked foods by weight ($/kg), the least cost starchy staple would always be cassava

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Each food group may have different trends and fluctuations Foods counted for the Cost of Diet Diversity (Co. DD) in Tanzania, 201115 In Tanzania, each food group varies differently over time 5. Avocado 4. Beef 3. Groundnuts 2. Soya 1. Maize Note: if we ranked foods by weight ($/kg), the least cost food would often be cabbage

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion To measure cost levels (e. g. $/day), we can use the Cost of a Recommended Diet (Co. RD) The previous indexes are unit-free, to measure change over time • Traditional food CPI • Nutritious-food CPI (NPI) • Cost of Diet Diversity (Co. DD) We measure total cost by specifying quantities consumed • Cost of a Recommended Diet (Co. RD): – Co. RD = ∑jpijqj , where pij = min{pij} and qj = requirement for j={1, …, m} categories weights each price by quantities in the recommended diet, lowest-cost only – Co. RD 2 = ∑jpijqj , where pij = median{pij} and qj = requirement for j={1, …, m} categories weights each price by quantities in the recommended diet, all foods equally

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion The Cost of a Recommended Diet (Co. RD) depends on price and quantity per day With the average of all items in each food group (except dairy), total cost would be US$0. 75/day The required portions from each food group cost between $0. 15 and $0. 25 per day Cost per day for a recommended diet, lowest-cost items only (Ghana, 2015) Fruits Vegetables Proteins Starchy staples $0, 00 $0, 10 $0, 20 $0, 30 Cost per day (2011 US$ in PPP terms) ot n s ice dairy r p na for Gha ilable ava

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion The most widely-used nutritional standard is nutrient adequacy The Cost of Nutrient Adequacy (Co. NA) is a “least-cost diet” using foods that reach EARs at lowest cost: Minimize C = Σipiqi Subject to aij qi > EARj , for j = 1, …, 17 essential nutrients and aie qi = E , for energy where pi is price and qi is quantity of food i, and aij is its content in nutrient j, for which EARj is the Estimated Average Requirements for adult women aged 19 -30, not pregnant or lactating, at 55 kg with energy use (E) of 2000 kcal/day We focus on total cost • Disaggregated by food groups, to show diet composition • Disaggregated by nutrients, valued at their shadow prices

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Cost of Nutrient Adequacy (Co. NA) in Ghana, by food group 2010 to 2014, m o fr se ro ts n ie tr u n t uying sufficien expensive re o m e In Ghana, the cost of b am ec b ) o g an m -A rich F&V (e. g. in m ta vi se au ec b y el rg la

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Cost of Nutrient Adequacy (Co. NA) in Ghana, by limiting nutrient tamin A, but vi ly n ai m is n se ri as h utrient whose cost n g in it lim e th a, an h G In also risen as h ts en em ir u q re m lciu the cost of meeting ca

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Cost of Nutrient Adequacy (Co. NA) in Tanzania, by food group during 2011 -12, A N o C in se ri e m so In Tanzania, there was rtant roles o p im g n yi la p s p u ro g d with many different foo relatively stable ts n ie tr u n f o st co e th in keeping

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Cost of Nutrient Adequacy (Co. NA) in Tanzania, by limiting nutrient A during 2011 -12, N o C in se ri e m so as w In Tanzania, there iting factors lim as ts n ie tr u n t n re fe with many dif

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Conclusions and next steps • Calculating the cost of a nutritious diet is challenging – Need clear definition of “nutritious”. We use: • • Food scores for nutritional value, modifying standard CPI to calculate NPI Recommended diets, using dietary guidelines to calculate Co. RD Dietary diversity, using MDD-W to calculate Co. DD Nutrient adequacy, using use EARs for 17 nutrients to calculate Co. NA • Underlying data remain limiting – Here, we use prices from Mo. FA in Ghana, NBS in Tanzania – For Ghana, future studies will include prices for expanded food list – In Tanzania and other countries, need more rural market prices • In follow-on projects, we will: – – Continue working with stakeholders for use and uptake Assemble prices from additional countries Test link to prices from climate fluctuations, infrastructure & markets Test link from prices to diet quality, heights & weights

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | formulas | data | nutrient adequacy | diet diversity | next steps Thank you! Work completed so far was funded by DFID, through an IMMANA grant to Tufts University for Indicators of Access to Nutritious Diets in Africa (IANDA) We are especially grateful for guidance and feedback from participants at national workshops in Ghana (June 2016 & July 2017) and Tanzania (April 2016 & July 2017), and data provided by the Ghana Ministry of Food and Agriculture (Mo. FA) and the Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) Special thanks to all price enumerators!

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Summary of formulas Index values: unit-free, no quantities specified • Nutritious-food CPI (NPI): – NPI = ∑ipini , where ni is a food’s health score, eg Nu. Va. L from 1 (worst) to 100 (best) weighting each price by its nutritional value, instead of expenditure shares in CPI • Cost of Diet Diversity (Co. DD): – Co. DD = Min 5{min{pi 1}, min{pi 2}, …, min{pim}} the least-cost way to include at least one food from at least 5 food groups – Co. DD 2 = Ave{min{pi 1}, min{pi 2}, …, min{pim}} the least-cost way to include at least one food from any 5 of the 10 food groups Cost per day: specifies quantities needed • Cost of a Recommended Diet (Co. RD): – Co. RD = ∑jpijqj , where pij = min{pij} and qj = requirement for j={1, …, m} categories weights each price by quantities in the recommended diet, lowest-cost only • Cost of Nutrient Adequacy (Co. NA): – Co. NA = MiniΣipiqi, where aij q i > EARj and aie q i = E aij is nutrient content of foods, EARj is nutrient requirement of people the least-cost combination of m foods to meet n nutrient needs

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion The Cost of a Recommended Diet (Co. RD) reflects specific dietary guidelines In Africa, the only countries with dietary guidelines are Benin, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Namibia, and South Africa (+Kenya soon) Cost per serving for lowest-cost item in each food group (Ghana, 2015) Fruits cify e p ss Vegetables e n i l f e o d Gui umber n Proteins the ings in serv group Starchy staples h eac 0, 00 0, 02 0, 04 0, 06 0, 08 0, 10 Cost/serving (PPP US$/item) ot n s ice dairy r p na for Gha ilable ava

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion The Cost of a Recommended Diet (Co. RD) depends on which foods are used With the average of all items in each food group (except dairy), total cost would be US$1. 37/day Ghana price data include several high-cost vegetables and protein foods, so those groups can be very expensive Cost per day for a recommended diet, median of all items (Ghana, 2015) Fruits Vegetables Proteins Starchy staples $0, 00 $0, 10 $0, 20 $0, 30 Cost per day (2011 US$ in PPP terms)

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion The Nutritious-food CPI reflects a specific nutrition scoring system Ghana Statistical Service CPI weights (food expenditure shares) versus Nu. Val scores (Nutritional Value index) overty p & e CPI Nu. Val m o c l in a e r u s ) I a e CP weights Used to m is 42% of as a Food (food whole Cereals and cereal products Meat and meat products Fish and sea food Milk, cheese and eggs Fruits Vegetables Oils and fats Sugar, jam, honey, chocolate & confectionery Mineral water, soft drinks, fruit &vegetable juices Food products n. e. c. Non-alcoholic beverages Coffee, tea and cocoa 100 25. 55 9. 10 22. 93 4. 33 4. 29 23. 36 5. 19 2. 29 3. 57 1. 95 5. 57 2. 00 to Could use measure l nutritiona value 100 19. 43 8. 55 14. 12 5. 50 lue > a v l a n o i t i 14. 64 Nutr ding n e p s r e m 32. 67 consu 0. 86 lue < a v l a n o i t i utr ding 0. 24 N n e p s r e m consu 0. 45 2. 50 2. 05

Nutritious-food price index (NPI) relative to food CPI in two regions of Ghana, Jan. 2012 -April 2017. . . but in Tamale from 2012 to 2014, the opposite occurred Prices of more nutritious foods rose less than prices of other foods

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion In Ghana, most food groups have had similar trends and fluctuations Cost of Diet Diversity (Co. DD) price index in Ghana, 2009 -14 Index value (2009=100) Co. DD 2 = avg. of least cost foods in all groups Co. DD 1 = least cost food in 5 th lowest-cost group

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion In Tanzania, the cost of the cheapest 5 groups has declined, while other groups have risen Cost of Diet Diversity (Co. DD) price index in Tanzania, 2011 -15 Index value (2009=100) Co. DD 2 = avg. of least cost foods in all groups Co. DD 1 = least cost food in 5 th lowest-cost group

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Estimated Average Requirements for dietary energy and 17 essential nutrients, for Cost of Nutrient Adequacy (Co. NA) Category Dietary Energy Macronutrient Minerals Vitamins Nutrients Energy Protein Calcium Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Zinc Copper Selenium Vitamin C Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin B 6 Folate Vitamin B 12 Vitamin A Vitamin E EARs 1 2, 000 36. 3 800 8. 1 255 580 6. 8 0. 7 45 60 0. 9 11 1. 1 320 2 500 12 Units kcal/day g/day mg/day mg/day mg/day mcg/day mg/day Note: Data shown are Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) for adult women aged 19 -30, not pregnant or lactating, at 55 kg with energy use (E) of 2000 kcal/day, from U. S. Institute of

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Foods selected for least-cost (Co. NA) diet plans in Ghana Average intake (mean g/day) and frequency of intake (percent of days) Food Item 2009 -2014 Avg. Pct. 2009 Avg. 2010 Pct. Avg. 2011 Pct. Avg. 2012 Pct. Avg. 2013 Pct. Avg. 2014 Pct. Avg. Pct. Cassava 21 11% 18 10% -- -- 47 25% 63 33% -- -- Maize 50 69% 14 20% 48 67% 55 75% 36 50% 66 92% 74 100% 910 100% 904 100% 902 100% 899 100% Mango Paddy Rice Palm Oil Plantain Smoked Herring Soya Beans 900 100% 905 100% 881 14 49% -- -- 6 25% 18 67% 13 50% 15 42% 27 100% 4 51% 7 100% 6 75% 3 33% 4 50% 5 58% -- -- 3 1% -- -- 19 8% -- -- 15 100% 15 100% 289 100% 267 100% 242 100% 243 100% 15 100% 256 100% 252 100% 246 uld require o w st co t es w lo at y ac trient adequ In Ghana, achieving nu (250 g/day)! s n ea b ya so d an ) ay /d (900 g eating a ton of mango

Affordability of nutritious diets in Africa: methods and results motivation | food scores | diet diversity | recommended diets | nutrient adequacy | conclusion Foods selected for least-cost (Co. NA) diet plans in Tanzania Average intake (mean g/day) and frequency of intake (percent of days) Food Item Cassava Flour Cassava Fresh Cooking Oil Dried Sardines Mchicha (spinach) Groundnuts 2011 -2015 Avg. Pct. 2011 Avg. 2012 Pct. Avg. 2013 Pct. Avg. 2014 Pct. Avg. 2015 Pct. Avg. Pct. 22 10% 36 17% 73 33% -- -- -- 36 42% 20 25% 7 8% 58 67% 44 50% 49 58% 6 32% 18 100% 7 42% -- -- 3 17% 14 100% 14 100% 135 100% 150 100% 162 100% 122 100% 133 100% 111 100% 88 100% 77 83% 61 68% -- -- 48 58% 90 100% Oranges 3 7% -- -- 14 33% Papaya 1 3% -- -- 3 8% -- -- Soya Beans 198 100% 206 100% 169 100% 203 100% 201 100% 210 100% White Maize Grains 147 100% 196 100% 163 100% 120 100% 132 100% 127 100% t cost involves es w lo at y ac u eq ad t n nutrie In Tanzania, achieving eans (200 g/day) b ya so so al d an ) ay /d g a lot of spinach (>100

Food prices in 10 regions of Ghana, March 2009 – Dec. 2014 (2011 PPP USD per 1000 kcal) Food Groups Grains, white roots and tubers, and plantains Pulses Nuts & seeds Meat, poultry and fish Eggs Vitamin A-rich vegetables and fruits Other vegetables Other fruits No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Foodstuffs Cassava Cocoyam Kokonte Gari Imported Rice Local Rice Maize Millet Paddy Rice Plantains Sorghum Yam Cowpea Soya Beans Groundnut 4 Anchovies Salted Dried Tilapia Fish Smoked Herrings Eggs Mangoes Tomatoes Garden Eggs (egg plants) Large Onions Bananas Oranges Pineapples Obs. 70 70 56 70 70 70 70 70 Mean 0. 33 1. 07 0. 38 0. 44 0. 73 0. 52 0. 26 0. 39 0. 40 1. 47 0. 37 1. 04 0. 61 0. 29 0. 58 4. 83 2. 53 1. 99 6. 23 1. 41 20. 77 9. 16 8. 95 1. 90 2. 94 Std. Dev. 0. 07 0. 24 0. 06 0. 07 0. 12 0. 06 0. 05 0. 13 0. 49 0. 04 0. 17 0. 10 0. 07 0. 11 1. 04 0. 61 0. 45 0. 44 0. 51 6. 88 2. 37 2. 90 0. 37 0. 90 0. 32

Food prices in 21 regions of Tanzania, Jan. 2011 -Dec. 2015 (2011 PPP USD per 1000 kcal) Food Group Grains, white roots and tubers, and plantains Pulses Nuts & seeds Dairy Meat, poultry and fish Eggs No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Foodstuff Cassava flour Cassava fresh Cooking Bananas Green Finger millet Maize Flour Potatoes – round Rice od o f Sweet Potatoes a’s y i Wheat Flour n za lread n White Maize a T is a se r Beans (soya) e t lis e div a’s Lentils r n mo Gha Red dry beans n Natural Groundnuts tha Fresh cow milk Powdered milk Beef sausage Beef with bones Beef without bones Dried sardines Goat meat Industrially bred live chicken Pork meat Traditionally bred live chicken Eggs-layers Eggs-traditional (1 of 2) Obs. 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 Mean 0. 60 0. 77 1. 64 0. 68 0. 47 2. 25 0. 74 1. 70 0. 62 0. 31 0. 65 1. 28 0. 78 0. 66 2. 89 7. 99 4. 32 3. 92 1. 11 5. 99 9. 51 6. 57 3. 17 11. 9 8. 42 11. 81 Std. Dev. 0. 07 0. 09 0. 11 0. 06 0. 13 0. 12 0. 14 0. 04 0. 03 0. 12 0. 04 0. 05 0. 16 0. 38 0. 08 0. 19 0. 04 0. 46 0. 38 0. 31 0. 28 0. 79 0. 28 0. 69

Food prices in 21 regions of Tanzania, Jan. 2011 -Dec. 2015 (2011 PPP USD per 1000 kcal) Food Group Dark green leafy vegetables Vitamin A-rich vegetables and fruits Other vegetables Other fruits No Foodstuff 27 Mchicha (spinach) 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Carrots Mangoes Papaya Tomatoes red Bitter tomatoes od o f Egg plant a’s y i n Cabbages za lread n a T is a Green peas se r e t Green bell pepper lis div na’s e r Ladies finger (okra) o a h m G Onions n a h t Apples (Imported) Avocado Coconut mature Lemons Limes Oranges Pineapples Sweet banana (2 of 2) Obs. 60 60 60 60 60 Mean 7. 49 7. 05 4. 46 5. 63 10. 44 8. 86 9. 44 2. 80 24. 78 16. 46 11. 28 6. 43 19. 58 1. 91 5. 52 11. 75 15. 62 4. 43 6. 66 3. 35 Std. Dev. 0. 74 0. 69 0. 63 0. 50 1. 19 0. 46 0. 49 0. 27 1. 74 0. 92 0. 75 0. 77 1. 62 0. 12 0. 51 2. 03 2. 87 0. 46 0. 65 0. 28