Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration Chapter 17 I

Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration Chapter 17

I: Turks - Economy and Society of Nomadic Pastoralism • Nomadic Pastoralists: keep and live off of herd animals, esp. in arid lands (e. g. , steppes) • Trade is important with settled peoples – Also, led camel caravans between China and the Med.

I: Turks - Nomadic Society • 2 social classes: nobles (semi-inherited, led and formed alliances, but didn’t really govern) and commoners (bravery in war -> nobles) • Patriarchal, but women had higher status than in agricultural societies – Tended herds (econ. function) -> status and influence

I: Turks - Nomadic Religion • Early: shamanistic • Later: many converted to religions of salvation: Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Manachaeism (also developed written script) • With rise of Islam, most converted – Late 10 th century: Seljuk clan converted, migrated to Persia, and formed alliances with Abbasids (puppet gov’t) – Between 10 th and 14 th centuries, most other Turkish clans converted to Islam

I: Turks - Military Organization • Expansion – confederation of people under a khan (not direct control, through leaders of allied tribes) – Strong cavalry (horse culture, archery) – Coordinated movements, mobility, discipline

I: Turkish Empires – Seljuk Turks and the Abbasid Empire • Lived along border of Abbasids for trade • Then, many served in army and lived in empire • By mid-11 th century: Seljuk Sultan more powerful than Abbasid caliphs, and expanded control to Syria, Palestine, etc.

I: Seljuk Turks & the Byzantine Empire • Early 11 th century: migrations into Anatolia • 1071: defeated Byzantines at Battle of Manzikert • Many peasants supported them – Set up political and social institutions , converted many to Islam

I: Ghaznavid Turks & the Sultan of Delhi • Mahmud had led raids from Afghanistan into India • 13 th century: successors took over N. India as the Delhi Sultanate – Army (with elephant corps) maintained borders but couldn’t spread into southern India – Destroyed Hindu and Buddhist temples, shrines and encouraged conversion to Islam

II: The Mongol Empires • From east and central Asian steppes • Social organization based on families, clans, tribes • Early 13 th century: Chinggis (Genghis) Khan mastered steppe diplomacy (bravery in battle, loyalty to allies – sometimes, ability to ally with unaffiliated tribes) • By 1206, united all Mongol tribes and became Chinggis Khan

II: Mongol Political Organization • Statecraft policies: – Broke up tribes & conscripted men into non-tribal units – Chose military and political leaders by talent – Successors established capital at Karakorum – Army => power (despite small population): horse culture, bows, mobile, psychological warfare

II: Mongol Conquest • N. China: beg. In 1211 by Chinggis Khan – By 1220: controlled N. China, capital at Khanbaliq • Persia: 1218, wanted trade/diplomatic relations -> Shah murdered merchants and envoy – Revenge – defeated shah’s army and destroyed everything (leveled cities, massacred people, destroyed qanat system, killed the caliph)

II: Mongol Conquest • 1227: Chinggis Khan died – Laid foundation for vast empire, but left no central gov’t for administration (ruled through overlords)

II: The Mongol Empires (after C. K) • Sons and grandsons struggled for power -> divided empire into 4 regional empires – China, Khanate of Changhata in C. Asia, Ilkhanate of Persia, Golden Horde in Russia • Constant tension between the khans of each

II: China and Kublai Khan • Consolidated Mongol rule in China: ruled 1264 -1294 – Military leader, also interested in cultural matters (improved welfare, promoted religions) – Attacked and conquered Southern Song – Established Yuan dynasty (1279 -1368) – Tried to expand unsuccessfully (SE Asia, Japan)

II: Mongol Rule in China • Did not adopt Chinese culture (saw them as “cultivators”) – No intermarriage, Chinese could not learn Mongolian – Brought in foreign administrators (Arabs, Persians, Europeans, Mongols) – Dismantled Confucian education and exam system • Religious tolerance: esp. supported Lamist Buddhism, despite keeping their shamanistic religion

II: The Golden Horde in Russia • Conquered between 1237 -1241 • Did not occupy (preferred steppe), but exacted tribute until mid-1400 s when Muscovy princes kicked them out

II: The Ilkhanate of Persia • Kublai’s brother, Hulegu conquered Abbasids • In 1258: took Baghdad and executed Caliph – Tried, but failed to expand throughout SW Asia and Egypt • Administration: Persians maintained order and collected taxes – Adopted Persian culture: converted to Islam and became part of Persian society

II: The Mongols & Eurasian Integration • Lots of destruction, but also increased interaction – -> encouraged communication (courier network with relay stations to transmit news, gov’t orders) – -> encouraged LD trade (safety through territories -> increase in volume and commercial investments) – -> sent out diplomatic missions (communication between khans and other rulers)

II: The Mongols & Eurasian Integration (cont. ) – -> missionaries (Sufis, Lamist Buddhists, Nestorian Christians, Roman Catholics) – -> resettlement: moved specialists (artisans, literate admin. , etc. ) from allies and conquered people to areas where they were needed

II: Decline of the Mongols in Persia • Collapse of the Ilkhanate: – Financial issues: excessive spending and overexploitation of the peasants; printed paper money to fix it -> failed and commerce stopped – Factional struggles: 1335 – no heir • -> local gov’ts formed

II: Decline of the Mongols in China • Decline of the Yuan Dynasty: – Economic: did not back up paper money -> lost value > prices soared – Factions and imperial assassinations, civil wars – Plus, 1330 s - spread of bubonic plague (facilitated by trade and communication) -> disrupted society -> depopulation and labor shortages – Also, 1340 s - rebellions and banditry ensued – 1368: rebels captured Khanbaliq and Mongols returned to the steppes

III: After the Mongols: Tamerlane • Turks restarted expansion • Tamerlane: filled power vacuum left in Persia – Charismatic leader -> attracted followers – 1360 s: eliminated rivals (defeat or alliance) – 1370: took over Khanate of Chaghatai (capital = Samarkand)

III: After the Mongols: Tamerlane – Led armies on campaigns of conquest: Persia, Golden Horde, India, SW Asia, Anatolia, and died on his way to China – Again, conqueror, not governor – no imperial administration (ruled through allied tribal leaders sand overlords who used existing bureaucratic structures, collected taxes and tribute) – Fell apart after his death (divided into 4 parts)

III: After the Mongols: Ottomans • Turks in Anatolia: campaigns of conquest by Osman • 1299: declared independence from Seljuk sultan; began fighting Byzantines (attracted followers) • Continued to gain power and expand until 1402 when they were defeated by Tamerlane

III: After the Mongols: Ottomans • By 1440 s: recovered and ready to expand into Byzantine Empire • 1453: Sultan Mehmed II sacked and captured Constantinople (-> Istanbul) • By 1480: expanded throughout SE Europe, SW Asia, N. Africa