Language Ethnicity and the State Minority Languages in

Language, Ethnicity, and the State: Minority Languages in the EU Ch 8: “Old” and “New” Lesser-Used Languages of Europe: Common Cause? By Tom Cheesman

Europe’s non-European and nonwhite migrants • 20 M non-European migrants in EU; 13 M Muslims of various ethnicities, in contrast with the traditionally white Christian base of the EU nation-states • 1993 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages is contested in places, but lays the groundwork for supporting linguistic diverstiy in the EU

The language of the citizen vis-àvis the language of the migrant • European Charter protects only languages spoken by minorities who are citizens/nationals -- does not protect official languages, dialects of official languages, or languages of migrants • But migrants soon become citizens and then the languages should fall under protection

The language of the citizen / the language of the migrant, cont’d. • Two versions of multicultrualism: – Strong: Minorities make a strong contribution to a multicultural society -- but the reality is that they tend to assimilate rather than influencing majority culture – Moderate: limited recognition of minority cultures for a transition of 3 -4 generations, after which ethnic identity is merely symbolic, and tougher issues like language are not dealt with -- This is what most policy assumes • But there are millions of speakers of non-European languages in the EU, and they are NOT temporary

Europe’s ”new” minority languages • Some are ”big”: Arabic, Chinese, Hindi/Urdu, Malay, Russian • Some are languages of various states: Bengali, Japanese, Korean, Somali, Turkish • Some lack a motherland: Kurdish • Though they lack protections, they are de facto important languages of Europe and are developing European cultural heritages

Juxtaposition of ”lesser” languages • Indigenous minority languages of Europe, like Welsh – Risk of extinction for some – Issues of local cultural recognition – Ancient European ancestry/autochthony – Territory essential (except Romany) • Immigrant & diaspora languages – No risk of extinction – No local issues

”Old” and ”new” cultural minorities • European ”original” minorities are promoted, while others are invisible • Lack of territorial definition makes it hard for new minorities to mimick nationalism on a smaller scale (like the old minorities) • No support for media and education in the languages of the new minorities -- leads to alienation from majority cultures, a situation that is getting worse, not better

”Old” and ”new” cultural minorities, cont’d. • Non-EU minorities are not disappearing via assimilation – New immigrant continue to replenish these groups – Increased ease of travel and communication have strengthened ties to societies of origin – Internet makes local communication globally accessible

”Old” and ”new” cultural minorities, cont’d. • Heritage bilinguals have real advantages in the global economy – Access to multiple markets, networks of kinship and trust – Incentive to cultivate languages, both own and others

”Old” and ”new” cultural minorities, cont’d. • Bilinguals enjoy educational, psychological, and social benefits -- but only when supported by bilingual education – Pressures to support biingual education for more and more languages are mounting – Language rights is a growing political issue – Gains made by idigenous territorial minorities motivate aspriations of new minorities

”Old” and ”new” cultural minorities, cont’d. • State policymakers are beginning to recognize value of minority language skills – USA is developing Heritage Language Initiative – Professionalized language diversity is a valuable resource

Cultural and linguistic change? • What is the trend? – Continued loss of minority languages? – Increasing multilingualism for economic opportunity, with heritage speakers at the vanguard? • It does seem to be the case that immigrants prefer biingualism when race and religion preclude full assimilation

Cultural and linguistic change? , cont’d. • Subnational community languages are increasingly often also transnational community languages • European community fears the ”Balkan nightmare” associated with ”excessive” diversity • 1996 Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights covers immigrants, refugees, diaspora, etc. and may come to challenge the exclusions of the European Charter…

Conclusions • Notions of language rights and cultural justice as universal are spreading • In a sense, all languages other than English are becoming ”minoritized”, and most of the world’s languages are becoming extinct • Could English become associated with ”industrialization, destruction of cultures, infringement of basic human rights, global cultural imperialism and widening social inequality”?

Conclusions, cont’d. • Internet supports and favors diversity • ”A European Union which legislates and passes budgets to protect its aboriginal languages, while still discriminating against all the languages of relative newcomers, must seem simply unjust, and the premises of its policy untenable. ” -- and this discrimination has racial implications • Old and new minorities should work together to build a new Europe more open to cultural diversity both within and beyond the region