Aristotles Nicomachean Ethics n The good what all

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics n The good = what all things aim at n We study Ethics, not merely to know, but to attain the good & to live good lives

The Good for Man = Eudaimonia n n n complete, sufficient a fulfilling human life human ergon = think on/lead a good life = a teleological ethics Defn = “rational activity with virtue” – focused on the goal = how to make my life good/fulfilling?

Major Claims n Ethics = quest for the good n The good = happiness-inrational activity n Possible to attain in a life of virtuous activities together with friends

Contrasting ethical theories Ancient: Modern Relativism n Universalism – ‘Command’ theories n n • Divine Command • Polis laws – Hedonism – Eudaimonist • Socrates? /Stoics: virtue alone = happiness • Callicles: dominance = virtue = happiness Relativism – Existentialism (authenticity-ethics) n Universalism – Deontology (Kant: categorical imperative) – Utilitarianism (Mill: the greater good)

Contrasting Ethical Claims KANTIANS n Categorical Imperative Universal Moral Rules n Possible conflict bet. Moral duty vs. Happiness n Virtue = means to Duty, not ends UTILITARIANS n Utility /Greatest Good = Highest ethical principle n Good = pleasure or greatest happiness n Conflict bet. personal happiness vs. greater good (including others) ARISTOTELIANS: vs. KANTIANS Ethics = ideal way of life, not principles of action n C. I. does not work n Justice = constitutive of happiness n Self-fulfillment in virtue, even in e. g. war n vs. UTILITARIANS Pleasure = subjective aspect of good n Good is happiness, not pleasure n Self-sacrifice for “greater good” may not be just; but may be for “enlarged self” n

Virtue (arete) n n n Virtues of character (moral virtues) – Courage – Temperance – Justice Moral Stages: n Mature, rational person – Chooses own goals, values – Moral + intellectual virtue n – Obedient to moral guidance, sense of honor – Moral-behavioral ‘virtues’ Virtues of mind (intellectual virtues) – Practical wisdom (phronesis) – Philosophical wisdom (sophia) Interpersonal virtue: – Friendship (philia) Maturing self n Immature ego – Acts on impulse/feelings – Opposes morals n Moral Ed changes: • immature ego • moral self • rational person

Moral development n Actions – Voluntary vs. coerced, done in ignorance – Chosen – “habits of choice, ” character n Virtue involves: – Knowing the act – Choosing it for its own sake – A consistent state of character

Freedom and Responsibility (III. 5) Aristotle: • If you know the particulars and • You are not coerced then • You are responsible, even if you don’t deliberately choose to do it. n But if actions arise from character, and it from how we are raised, are we really “free”? n Aristotle’s reply: – Either we are co-responsible – Or, if not, we must still reward and punish to bring out what is better n

Definition of Moral Virtue (II. 6) n. A habit or state of character that expresses a choice n Which finds a mean relative to us n As determined by rational principle, ie. guided by values a morally wise person would see are at stake

The Doctrine of the Mean Virtue (of character) involves striking a mean between extremes of action and passion. n Excess: having too much of something n Deficiency: having too little of something. n The mean is not mediocrity, but harmony and balance. n

Deficiency VIRTUE Excess Cowardice COURAGE Rashness Self-indulgent TEMPERANCE Anhedonic (drunken, glutton, promiscuous) (healthy moderation) (incapable of enjoying pleasure) Cheapness GENEROSITY Wastefulness Self-Shame, Servility PROPER PRIDE Arrogance, Vanity (& high ambition) (low self-esteem) (bloated self-esteem) Exploitative JUSTICE (covetous, dominator) (fair-mindedness) (Altruistic)

Virtue and Self-Control n Aristotle contrasts: – Self-controlled or continent people, who have unruly desires but manage to control them, guided by good judgment (right reason). – Temperate people, whose reason and desires have become harmonized—second-nature— and choose that which is good for them. – Weakness of will (akrasia) occurs when rightthinking people cannot keep their desires under control. (Discussed in Bk VII. )

Courage and Cowardice n courage involves mastering fear courage = willing to give your life for the good you value n no freedom without courage n

Temperance vs. Intemperance Temperate • choose “mean”, willingly limit your pleasures • enjoy temperance n Self-indulgent • E. g. drunkenness, promiscuity • virtue = freely act within limits • vice = “enslaving” n

Justice and Fairness Virtues of Justice = • • Obeying the Law Fairness = willingly giving other his due 2 Forms of Justice • • Distributive Corrective 2 Norms of Justice • • Conventional Natural

Distributive vs. Corrective Justice n Distributive = n Corrective = giving or taking of restoration of goods or evils ‘equality’* between fairly to others, i. e. individuals where according to one has wrongfully proportionality by injured the other merit*/desert *what constitutes ‘merit’ may vary with situation & call for judgment, esp. where participants are ‘unequal’ in their situation *here the differences in merit between the individuals is irrelevant; the ‘superior’ has no more right to harm the ‘inferior’ than vice-versa

Conventional vs. Natural Justice Conventional Right = Justice according to law or the prevailing norms of the society* *These will be at least partly in conformity to natural right, but may be distorted: e. g. laws under conditions of tyranny or oligarchy or communism or other societies that do not value genuine merit Natural Right = Justice according to the laws/actions that fulfill human nature, relative* to wise judgment *These will reflect the ideal vision of a humanly fulfilling society with a realistic appraisal of what can best be attained at the time

Sub-category of fairness: honesty Virtue of Honesty = • • Obeying the rules of the game Fairness = willingly giving the other (competitor) his due Act of honesty • • • Done consciously Choose for own sake Act of character Relation to other virtues • • NOTE: honesty implies either (i) other-directed sense of honor & shame (pre-adult virtue) or (ii) personal sense of honor & principle (adult virtue) • • PRIDE: Self-respect, highmindedness, integrity PRACTICAL WISDOM: True v. false self-presentation (vs. ‘cleverness’, self-deception) FRIENDSHIP with self, others HAPPINESS in genuine accomplishment

Virtues of the Mind n Art e. g. sculptor, doctor – Makes particular useful things – They wouldn’t otherwise exist n n – Deliberative skill re: means – Right values (ends) – Self-knowledge – Unity of Virtue Science e. g. chemist – Deduces from necessary, universal laws – Not concerned with particular things/events n Intuitive Reason = – Realizes principles/facts are ‘ultimate’ – Recognizes principles in practical situations Practical Wisdom n Theoretical Wisdom – Logic, Physics, Ethics – Vision of “God”

Moral Knowledge is like Art (techne, craft) n Goal-oriented n Perception of, feel for the situation (nous) n Brings about useful, noble particulars, which otherwise don’t exist n Grounded in desire, not cognition n ‘Truth-in-action’ more than in logos Science (episteme) n Truth-revealing n Awareness of universal principles, human nature n Skill in deliberation and reasoning n Involves knowledge of self, others n Particulars exemplify universal values

Weakness of Will Socrates: “No one can know the good and not choose it. ” n Common view: “People can know what they should do, but still choose not to do it. ” n PARADOX: n How can you choose to do what you know is not good for you? Who knows? Who is choosing? n Compare: how is self -deception possible?

Aristotle’s Solution “One can have general knowledge but, moved by passion, not apply it. ” n PARADOXES: – Chronic weak-willed do not “choose” – Chronic weak-willed not = “one self” SOLUTION: n vs. Socrates: – ‘abstract knowledge’ is possible; – ‘knowing’ is not = doing. n vs. Common sense: – Cannot ‘know’ in situ and still choose bad – ‘voluntary doing’ is not = choosing – Person can lack ‘moral self-unity’

What is Self-Love? n Is it good or bad? n Self-love based on virtue is good n We should love ourselves, be “caretakers” of our virtue and well-being (compare Apology 30 b) n Care of our psyche will involve care of our ‘works’ (theoretical and practical), but value process/virtue over outcome/success

“Art” of Self-Care? Socratic theme n Central value = integrity n Self-friendship = preserving ethical balance in midst of actions, emotions n Phronesis “evaluates” life’s opportunities with n – good reasoning – right values (justice, noble beauty) – concept of ‘full life’

True Self-Love Self-care, selfrespect (proper pride) n Having good goals n (wisdom) n Sticking to goals (courage, temperance) n Acting to promote flourishing in yourself, others (justice, friendship)

Friendship (filia) Friendships of – utility – pleasure – virtue n Friendship = bridges egoism / altruism n True friendship – based in self-love – “expands the self” n

Is Altruism Possible? Ethical egoism = seek good for oneself. n Altruism = do good for another (for their sake) n Counterexamples: – sacrifice for child, friend who betrays – Still do it? n Friendships = alliances for mutual benefit or emotional attachments (temporary? longlasting? ) n ARISTOTLE n Friendships: most egoistic = based on pleasure/utility n Perfect friendship – – – n Based on virtue mutual recognition Non-competitive includes pleasure, utility Friend is “other self” Self is “expanded self” Friendship & Egoism – bridges gap between egoism and altruism – Even “self-sufficient” virtuous person needs friends

The Good Life and Politics subjective vs. objective good – pleasure/joyfulness vs. happiness/flourishing n 2 forms of “the good life” – contemplative (theoria) • Vision of God • Perfect happiness – active (praxis) • Imperfect happiness • Necessary & good n

Puzzle: What is the Telos? Dominant End n Goal = activities aiming at truth; or liberty and justice n Life-actions are subordinated to one great goal n Fulfillment in goalachievement Inclusive End n Goal = inclusive balance of goods within a form of life n Self e. g. politician, business, family life, physical life n Performative balance in a good life Which is Aristotle?

Answers to Skeptics To Egoists and ‘Immoralists’: why be moral? n A: No one can find peace and fulfillment without a rational, friendly relation to others. To Hedonists: n A: virtues and even external goods are not good b/c they are pleasurable, but are truly enjoyable b/c they are good (=conducive to rational flourishing, fulfillment) To Relativists: n A: some individuals’ and some societies’ ethics are more deeply fulfilling of human nature than others (the fact people disagree does not mean there is not a true answer to the question) To Pluralists: n A: some individuals’ lives are more fulfilling than others (the life of the mind and the life of politics are fully satisfying in ways that a life of art, or a life of business and family are not; yet many contemporary Aristotelians reject this, and the dominant end model of life)

Aristotle’s Politics I n rejects Republic as contrary to “natural law” —humans by nature desire/need: – Family life – Property of their own – Share in governing themselves (except for “natural slaves”)

Aristotle’s Politics II: rule by philosopher-kings impossible; men need the rule of law n GOOD GOVTS – Constitutional Monarchy – Constitutional Aristocracy – Constitutional Republic; blends other forms n BAD GOVTS – Tyranny = rule by fear (lawless) – Oligarchy = govt by the rich – Democracy = rule by working class (least bad)