What should I do How should I act

What should I do? How should I act? Is it right? Introduction to Ethics

Some key questions… ❖ What should I do? ❖ What is the right thing to do? ❖ How should I act/react? ❖ ❖ Should we listen to our ‘gut reactions’, our consciences or the law? What are the limitations of each of the above?

A FEW FACTS ABOUT ETHICS ❖ ❖ ❖ comes from the Greek word ethos meaning character ethics has been an aspect of philosophical debate since people started debating! ethicists study actions and issues that can be considered good and/or bad, right and/or wrong and ask general guiding questions of how people should act

Difference between Ethics and Morals/Morality ❖ Morals (Morality): customary beliefs about HOW people should be and act ❖ Ethics: the study of theories about these beliefs ❖ note: this distinction is not always established in all works related to this topic ❖ Study of ethics is divided into 3 main categories: normative theories, metaethics and applied ethics

Normative Theories ❖ ❖ (theories of morals and morality) deal with questions of how people should act- and WHY these theories do not focus on if something happens but rather if it should happen ❖ ❖ Do students cheat on essays? (descriptive social science) Should students cheat on essays? (prescriptive - philosophy)

Theories of Character ❖ ❖ focuses on the quality of character traits (good or bad…) also referred to as virtue theories/virtue ethics (particularly when addressed what are considered to be ‘good’ virtues).

Examples of Virtues

Theories of Value ❖ these deal with questions of people’s values/assessments of worth ❖ Eg: What is goodness? Justice? Injustice? ❖ Are these ideas objective or subjective? ❖ ❖ Are they determined by culture? What values do people share? Why? Discuss

Metaethics ❖ ❖ involves examining the meaning of the terms used when exploring ethical issues and the methodology used to address specific situations explores how and in what sense ethical judgments can be justified

A few challenges… ❖ words and meaning can be subjective ❖ Debate the relationship between good and right as some argue they are not synonymous ❖ Discuss

Some key Ethical Theories: ❖ Nihilism: 4 th C BC ❖ ❖ no such things as right and wrong because moral truths or facts do not exist Sicilian philosopher of 4 th C BC Gorgias argued that nothing exists and if it did, it could never be known nor communicated because communication based on words = symbols and no symbol can be what it symbolizes

Skepticism ❖ ❖ ❖ originated in Ancient Greece believe nothing can be known for certain therefore can never know if moral truths or facts exist ethical statements would be defended by further ethical statements and they believe people must doubt the truth of all such statements

Determinism (Newton, Darwin, Augustine of Hippo, Luther, Calvin, ) ❖ ❖ ❖ all that happens is determined by previous events or laws of nature (free will an illusion) Issac Newton - universal laws of nature atoms (in brain) subject to laws of nature so ppl cannot control their actions ❖ Darwin - controlled by biological/genetic makeup ❖ religious argument - predestination determines choices

Psychological Egoism (influenced by ideas of Freud) ❖ people are free to make moral choices (influenced by unconscious psychological desires) ❖ humans are programmed to act only out of self-interest ❖ Eg: sharing, no such thing as ‘a free lunch’

Key Ideas: ❖ Ethical Absolutism ❖ Ethical Universalism ❖ Relativism ❖ Moral Values - Subjective or Objective? ❖ Are ‘Right’ and ‘Legal’ the Same Thing? ❖ Can people do good without God?

Ethical Absolutism: ❖ one universally acceptable moral code determines the rightness and wrongs of actions ❖ argues that everyone, regardless of consequences, cultural background, etc. , should observe the same moral code

Ethical Universalism ❖ This theory argues: ❖ ❖ there is one universally acceptable moral code that determines the rightness and wrongness of actions does NOT believe that this code should be applied regardless of circumstances moral code/rules CAN and SHOULD be broken in certain circumstances moral rules are universal but not necessarily absolute

Ethical Relativism (Pre-Socratic Thinkers, Hume) ❖ This theory: ❖ - rejects the idea of the universal moral code ❖ ❖ ❖ - argues that all values are RELATIVE to time, place, persons and situations - all moral values are equally acceptable, because there is no way of judging between them - neither a nihilist nor skeptical in nature: theory DOES believe in right and wrong just does not believe that ideas about right and wrong are universal

Ethical Relativism continued… ❖ ❖ - morality depends on SOCIAL CUSTOMS - ethical norms are relative to particular societies (eg: Capital punishment)

So… ❖ Most people lie somewhere between ethical universalism and ethical relativism.

Logical Postivism (Ayer 20 th C) ❖ ❖ debating moral issues is impossible as ethical statements are meaningless only statements that matter are those that are true by definition (2+2=4) or that can be verified by evidence presented by the senses (Eg: It is raining) therefore: there are no moral facts and thus impossible to make moral choices this theory, however, does argue that people should try to obey the law

Challenges to LP: (Rorty) ❖ some who challenged LP argue that the ideas presented by theory cannot be true by definition nor proved by the sense so they are therefore meaningless…

Emotivism (originated by Hume) ❖ ❖ also disputes the idea of moral facts that exist argues moral claims are just expressions of feeling or attitude influenced Logical Positivism express approval or disapproval which in turn only express feelings and attitudes