Social Inequality Chapter 10 1 Social Stratification n

Social Inequality Chapter 10 1

Social Stratification n Definition of social stratification: The layering of people according to access to societal resources. Key societal resources in the U. S. include access to education, stable jobs, and bank loans. In a capitalist society, it is all about money. While stratification is found in all societies, its form varies. For example, some societies stratify people according to their ethnicities, so that one particular ethnic group is favored over the others. n The Southern Jim Crow system of “separate but equal” racial segregation favored white people over people of color, giving whites more access to key societal resources. This practice was finally ended in 1964. In the U. S. the most signification social stratification involves stratification by social class. Social class is usually measured by a 2 n n n

Two Basic Types of Stratification Caste Systems Class Systems Emphasis on achieved status n n Open boundaries n n More mobility n n Less endogamy, a bit more exogamous n n Less status consistency In caste systems people’s ascribed characteristics - their race, sex, or n Emphasis on ascribed status Fixed, closed boundaries Less mobility More endogamy; exogamy is not generally permitted Lots of status consistency n ethnicity – place them in fixed locations for the rest of their lives. In class systems there is more emphasis on achieved status, where a person’s individual achievements may bring them upward mobility. 3

Historical Context Recall the Lenski typology discussed in Chapter Four. n n n Hunting and gathering societies are relatively less stratified because there are so few social statuses and they have such a simple social structure. The emergence of agrarian societies led to huge stratification systems. Slavery became a common feature of agrarian societies. Agrarian society stratification is based mostly on the caste system. Industrial societies, while initially highly stratified, tend to see reduced stratification over time because of their emphasis on achieved status and the emerging values of freedom and equality. Plus their new technologies reduce the need for laborintensive jobs. Industrial society stratification is based mostly on the class system. 4

Historical Context n In the American 19 th and 20 th century, both caste and class stratification systems operated, depending on the category of people affected. n n n For racial minorities and women, a caste system operated in many areas of the country. Racial minorities and women were essentially segregated and forced into low paying jobs that had little upward mobility. In effect, they experienced internal colonization. However, for white males a class system operated which permitted them to achieve upward mobility based on hard work and achievement. It would not be until the 1960 s that the last vestiges of the caste system would be eradicated. Since the 1960 s minority groups have achieved more upward mobility. 5

Four Basic Principles n n 1. Stratification is a characteristic of society and not just individual differences. In other words it results from the social structure and it affects everyone. 2. Stratification persists over generations. It is passed on via family ties, where the infant inherits the social location of their parents. 3. Stratification is universal, but extremely variable in form. 4. Stratification involves not just inequality, but the belief systems that legitimize this inequality. 6

Two key factors help maintain a stratification system: n n 1. Ideology, specifically the dominant ideology. 2. Elite control of key societal resources. Ideology refers to the set of assumptions people use to understand advocate how people should be treated. Basically an ideology is a world view. Examples of ideologies include individualism, democracy, Christianity, communism, capitalism, racism, sexism, etc. n There are many ideologies in complex societies such as ours, but they are not equally powerful. Some are more powerful than others. 7

Dominant Ideology n n n The dominant ideology refers to the most powerful or mainstream ideology in a society. Examples of dominant ideologies in the U. S. include n Christianity (the dominant religious ideology), n individualism and freedom (the dominant social ideology), n democracy (the dominant political ideology) and n capitalism (the dominant economic ideology). This ideology is very significant to the American stratification system. Dominant ideologies tend to be taken-for-granted as common sense, or “truth. ” n Other competing ideologies tend to be dismissed or not even considered. For example, Americans rarely even consider the viability of democratic socialism – an alternative to capitalism. Dominant ideologies do not stem from just anyone. They stem from 8 elites, who have the power to have their world views spread

Dominant Ideology n n n Because the dominant ideology stems from elites (the primary beneficiaries of the status quo), the dominant ideology of a society always legitimizes the status quo. It makes the current pecking orders of society appear “natural” and appropriate. (Notice that elites are at the top of this pecking order). Because the dominant ideology is found throughout the society, almost everyone learns it, and most people accept or internalize the dominant ideology into their own world views. n For example, the dominant racial ideology of the 19 th century was racism. Consequently the vast majority of whites were racist, and white Americans took it as common sense that people of color were “inferiors. ” It took a civil rights movement in the 1950 s and 9 60 s to challenge and finally end this dominant ideology.

Dominant Ideology n n People are socialized into the dominant ideologies of their culture at young ages, and most internalize these world views into their own belief system. Partly because we are a diverse society, the Americans have long had conflicting dominant ideologies. We learn to believe in equality, but we also learn to believe in sexism and homophobia. We learn to believe in cooperative, loving spiritualism (Christianity that emphasizes the New Testament), but we also learn to believe in competitive, selfinterested materialism (capitalism). 10

Dominant Ideology in Caste Systems n n In the old monarchies, the King owned nearly all the land, and the peasant was “permitted” to farm this land for subsistence. The King was all-powerful. Why did most peasants accept this inequality? n The dominant ideology that justified this unequal arrangement was divine nobility. Peasants were told by the King and the official Church that the King was divine. He was selected by God to be their leader and this was unchangeable. A king was a king for life, and a peasant was a peasant for live, and that was God’s will. Any peasant who disagreed would go to Hell. Those peasants who obeyed the King would go to Heaven. Most peasants were religious. They accepted divine nobility, and therefore accepted their 11

Dominant Ideology in Class Systems n n n While the American class system is less stratified than the old monarchies of Europe, nearly one in five Americans lives in or near poverty. The capitalist system has not served their interests, so why aren’t they organizing into a collective movement for change? One of the reasons is that the dominant ideology of capitalism promotes the notion that anyone can dare to be great if they try hard enough, so you just have to try harder. n We are told that meritocracy determines our personal success, so again, we must try harder. Also, our economic system emphasizes the myth that we live in a land of equal opportunity, so those who fail must not be taking advantage of these “equal” opportunities. Finally, we are an individualistic society, so if we fail we 12 learn to blame ourselves rather than the system.

Summary n n n The dominant ideologies of capitalism, meritocracy, and individualism function to point the blame not at the system itself but at the individual for her own failure to succeed. Most poor people remain loyal to capitalism, despite its failure to serve their interests, just as most peasants remained loyal to their King, despite his failures. Capitalism is a dominant ideology and it justifies inequality by suggesting that the poor are lazy or have failed to take advantage of opportunities. They have only themselves to blame. Dominant ideologies are very powerful in maintaining the stratification system. 13

Elite control of key societal resources n n The second reason why stratification systems tend to last a long time is that they are maintained by the power of elites. Elites have disproportionate influence over the laws, the media, the education system, the religious system, the jobs system, bank loans, and other key institutions. n n n These institutions have policies that favor elites over others. Those who are the daughters and sons of the powerful can expect easier access to the top schools and jobs, as the 43 rd President’s personal history reveals. Thus the system perpetuates itself across generations. During the feudal times in Europe, the King simply sent the Sheriff to any offender who did not obey his wishes, so for the few who did not accept the dominant ideology of divine nobility there was plenty of armed force to assure the survivability of 14

Explanations for Stratification n The structural functional paradigm argues that stratification systems are functional for society. n n n The Davis-Moore Thesis argues that industrial societies are most productive under a system of meritocracy. Under this type of inequality, the stratification system rewards good performers (with high wages) and punishes poor performers (with low wages). Davis-Moore argue that some jobs need to pay more than others – they are important jobs – so their high pay will attract the best performers. These top performers will be more innovative and this is functional for society. Functionalists also argue that stratification promotes in-group solidarity. Members of similar social classes tend to identify with each other. 15

Explanations for Stratification n n Conflict theorists disagree with the Davis-Moore thesis promoted by functionalists. They argue that people do not need more money to do good work, because what makes people do good work is pride and character, not money. n The Davis-Moore argument presumes people are selfish and motivated only by money, while conflict theorists argue that people are fundamentally good. They ask, “who is to say what jobs are more functionally important than others? ” Everyone needs a garbage hauler, yet they are paid relatively low wages. They also ask, “is a sports athlete’s salary really reflective of meritocracy? ” Is a star football player really worth 20 times the salary of the President? Do executives really deserve to make their million dollar salaries? Are they really the best at their jobs? Finally they ask, “what society has actually practiced a true meritocracy? ” About half of all wealth is inherited rather than 16

Explanations for Stratification n n Karl Marx argued that stratification is harmful to society, not functional. It promotes social conflicts by giving some people advantages over others, creating an unfair system of rewards. To Marx, the capitalist owners exploited the workers with low wages and terrible working conditions. This created the conflicts between the haves and the havenots. n Marx argued that capitalism and its inequality had to be replaced by a system of democratic socialism that assured a more harmonious and just distribution of wealth. Only with equality would society be more harmonious. All capitalist systems bring inequality and poverty. 17

Explanations for Stratification n Functionalists criticize Marxists by arguing that a non -stratified society is not feasible. n n n Some level of stratification is a fact of life in all societies. They also criticize Marx for being wrong about predicting a worker’s revolution. However, Marxists respond that the strikes and union movements of earlier times were a form of worker’s revolution, and these strikes ultimately reformed the harshest aspects of capitalist exploitation. 18

Summary of the Conflict Theory Argument n n 1. Stratification promotes oppression and exploitation: the haves gain at the expense of the have -nots. 2. Stratification promotes conflicts between the different social classes, and these conflicts are harmful to society. 3. Meritocracy is not necessary. We do not need a financial rewards system for good behavior because good behavior is a matter of personal character more than anything else. 4. Equality assures fairness, and with fairness society would be more harmonious. 19

Max Weber’s Insights n Karl Marx emphasized economic matters as the basis of a stratification system. Max Weber argued that there are other dimensions to social stratification: n n n 1. Social class – the economic dimensions that Marx wrote about. Having wealth means having power. 2. Status – some jobs may be low paid, but they carry high prestige and thus convey power. An example would be the job of being a priest. 3. Power – This could be political or bureaucratic power. Politicians have a special form of institutional power, as does any mid-level manager in a bureaucracy. The “technocrat” may not make much money, but they do have bureaucratic power. n In the former Soviet Union, bureaucratic officials were not paid much money, but they had tremendous power to influence society. 20

Social Mobility n n Social mobility refers to movement up or down the stratification system, and this movement is caused by two forces. 1. Exchange mobility. This is mobility due to the individual’s own behaviors. n n An example would be when someone works very hard on the job and their boss notices it and rewards them with a promotion. 2. Structural mobility. This is mobility due to social forces beyond the individual’s immediate control. n An example would be if a factory started up in a small town, then plenty of new jobs would open up and it would offer lots of structural opportunities for people. Similarly if the factory closed shop, then it would lead to mass layoffs, regardless of how well the workers perform on the job as individuals. 21

Social Mobility Americans are socialized to believe that most mobility in the U. S. is exchange mobility but this is not true. n The vast bulk of mobility in this society is due to structural forces. n n This also explains why Americans have enjoyed more than a century of upward mobility. As long as the American economy has grown to offer more and better paying jobs, America has been a “land of opportunity. ” 22

Industrial Society and Mobility n The industrial revolution initially led to the polarization of social classes between the working/lower classes and the middle/upper classes. n n These were the conditions that Karl Marx studied when he wrote about the evils of capitalism. This system was so rigid it was close to a caste system. However, a large middle class gradually emerged over time, many jobs were upwardly mobile, and a distinct class system emerged. n n n In the 1920 s, the top 1% of the population owned 36% of the nation’s wealth. By the 1980 s, the top 1% owned 23% of the nation’s wealth. Today wealth is quickly becoming concentrated again. Business Week notes that the top 1% now own 40% of the nation’s wealth, which is more than the bottom 90% of all households combined. 23

Industrial Society and Mobility n n n 1. Historically, most American mobility has been structural and upward. 2. Most American mobility has been intergenerational (across generations) more than intragenerational (within a generation). 3. Since the 1980 s, there has been more structural downward mobility due to the forces of globalization. n Some have written of a middle class slide, referring to a shrinking middle class since the 1970 s. The only Americans who are doing well are the top 20% of Americans. It appears that this generation may be the first American generation that is worse off than their parents. On the other hand, the economy is hard to predict and the American economy has often surprised people with its robustness. 24

Economic Problems Today n n Indeed, Americans work longer for less pay today than they did in 1970, but it depends on specific categories. n For example, the civil rights movement aided racial minorities and women in their efforts to achieve upwardly mobile jobs. Women have had more opportunities recently than they have ever had, thanks to civil rights gains. The primary culprit is globalization, but there are many factors that are stressing the U. S. economy. Globalization has led to increased foreign competition and American corporations downsizing American jobs in favor of hiring cheap labor in other countries. Unions have been on the decline, automation has displaced many workers, executives have become too greedy, tax policies favor the rich, the economy has become a service sector economy with lower paying jobs, and the government is reluctant to offer national health care, national day care, and other family supports. 25

New Opportunities for Some n On the other hand, American values are changing for the better and levels of racism, sexism and homophobia are declining. n This means that we are becoming a more egalitarian society, as well as a more inclusive society. This is good news for most minority groups because it means they are finally getting opportunities denied to them in the past. 26

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