Zen Childhood MODULES 14 15 INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

“Zen Childhood” MODULES 14 & 15 INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

Developmental Psychology What is developmental psychology? Developmental psychology is the scientific study of behavioral changes that occur in human beings over the course of the life span. Why study child development? --Many of people’s emotional problems can be traced back to childhood experiences. --To discover why, in part, you are the way you are! --To understand how to interact with children and what to expect from them.

Developmental Domains Moral development fits under emotional, social, and cognitive development. 1. Physical • refers to body development, coordination, motor skills, etc. 2. Emotional • the development of a full range of feelings and the ability to deal with and express those feelings appropriately. 3. Social • the ability to interact appropriately with others and develop friendships. 4. Cognitive • refers to reasoning and intellectual development—the development of the mind.

Heredity Versus Environment The questions: 1. What is caused by heredity--what is contained in the genes themselves? 2. What is caused by the environment--the influences from the world around us? § Developmental psychologists agree that who we are and what we are capable of doing or becoming is a result of BOTH nature and nurture. Heredity = Nature Environment = Nurture

The Role of Heredity/The Prenatal Environment Genes are the basic units of heredity. q They determine specific characteristics, such as eye color and shape, hair color and texture, adult height, general body build, etc. q Except for the effect that the prenatal environment can have (i. e. the pregnant woman’s nutrition, injury to the fetus, and so on), everything babies are born with is determined by their genes.

Teratogenic Effects are influences from outside the womb that have a negative effect on the developing fetus. Teratogenic effects may come from any of the following realms: Environmental - pollution, toxins, drugs, alcohol, etc. Two specific examples: 1. Thalidomide Babies thalidomide is a drug that was used for morning sickness during the 1950’s – 1960’s. The effects of the drug caused babies to be born without limbs.

2. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) children whose mothers consume alcohol during pregnancy are often born with abnormal physical characteristics and suffer from developmental delays and behavioral problems.

Social/Emotional - stress of any kind. Physical - trauma to the mother’s body during pregnancy through accidents or abuse.

Chromosome- a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes. Every kind of body cell, with the exception of one, contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46. The body cell that is the exception -reproductive cells (the egg and the sperm each contain only 23 chromosomes – one half of each pair). Zygote - This is the term for the fertilized egg for up to 2 weeks after conception. It then has the necessary number of chromosomes, 46, for development. Embryo (weeks 2 -8) Fetus (9 weeks-birth)

The textbook outlines six characteristics that seem to be influenced by heredity (or genes). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Intelligence Activity level How easily soothed a person is Emotional responsiveness How a person reacts to new or things in the environment 6. Tolerance for alcohol. IMPORTANT NOTE: Even though many characteristics are inherited, that doesn’t mean they can’t be changed by the environment. A person may inherit the potential to be a great runner, but only with the proper training will he or she actually perfect this skill. The environment must be nurturing for a person to reach his full potential.

Twin Studies There are two types of twins. With one type, dizygotic (or fraternal), twins develop from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm. These twins are no more alike in their heredity, or genetic structure, than any other sibling pair. With the second type, called monozygotic (or identical) twins, twins develop from only one fertilized egg that for unknown reasons divides in two. Since identical twins result from a split of one fertilized egg, these types of twins share the same genetic structure or heredity.

Psychologists study identical twins to see how they are alike – especially when they have not been raised together in the same household. If raised in different households and their characteristics still end up being similar, the environment is considered to have a minimal role in their development, with heredity being the major contributing factor in development.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MONOZYGOTIC (IDENTICAL) TWINS THAT APPEAR TO BE THE RESULT OF HEREDITY: 1. Basic temperament (usual mood) 2. Occupational interests 3. Hobbies 4. Art and music preferences 5. Athletic interests Researchers estimate that roughly 50% of our personality traits and intelligence are the result of genetic factors, but no one knows for sure. Twin studies leave us with little doubt that heredity plays a very important role in development.

Developmental Patterns Development within a species is orderly and specific. Much of our development is the process of integrating our brains with our bodies. Babies are born with only reflexes. At first, the baby has no control over these reflexes. For example: 1. If you touch a baby’s cheek, it will turn its head and start sucking (rooting). 2. If you place your finger in the palm of a baby’s hand, it will grasp it tightly (grasping). 3. If a baby is startled, its arms and legs suddenly shoot out, away from its body (moro/startle). These reflexes disappear when higher brain functioning takes over. The sucking, grasping, and startle reflexes are some of the building blocks for later, more complicated behavior.

THE COMPETENT NEWBORN Reflexes Video

Maturational Processes A child is preprogrammed for certain activities, such as walking – a natural skill that begins to develop sometime between 9 and 15 months after birth. As uncoordinated as babies seem to be during this process, and as learned of a behavior this appears to be to the casual observer, it is indeed part of a natural, automatic, maturing process. Maturation is the automatic, orderly, and sequential process of physical (and mental) development. The same rules apply to other skills, such as speech and reasoning. Children need play and interaction in order to for the natural maturational process to occur.

There are currently a number of toys on the market today that claim to speed up the maturational process. However, these claims should not be taken too seriously…

A good environment (nutrition, stimulation, safety, etc. ) is necessary for proper development. However, can a good environment speed up the maturational process? § The answer is no. While a proper environment is essential, it shows no signs of speeding up the maturational process. It simply takes time for a child’s neurons to develop and branch out, and no toy or amount of talking in the world can make that happen any earlier that it normally would. With a stimulating environment, maturation will proceed at its own internal pace, not exceed it.

It is important to note that without a stimulating environment, the child’s development can be slowed. Neurons cease to branch out and connect. Patterns (sequences) of maturation are essentially the same for all children. The timing of development, however, varies from one child to another. Only notable extremes are cause for concern.

Growth Cycles Since humans don’t develop at one uniform rate, our development is often measured in terms of growth cycles, or orderly patterns of development. q Some areas may develop more rapidly or more slowly, while others may develop in spurts. For instance: by age 8, while 95% of brain development is complete, the body is only 45% developed, while the reproductive system is only 10% developed.

Gender also influences growth cycles: Girls are more orderly and stable in growth cycles. From infancy, they show a continuous movement forward in babbling, word making, and bone and muscle development. Boys, on the other hand, grow in spurts and mature more slowly, although they do eventually reach the same level.

Imprinting is a biological process in which the young (offspring) of certain species follow and become attached to their mothers. Konrad Lorenz discovered this phenomenon in ducks and other birds. Ducks imprint the image of a “mother figure” shortly after hatching (basically up to about 16 hours), and will imprint on almost anything, as long as it is moving. Lorenz found that ducklings whose mother wasn’t available would follow him around if he quacked and walked in a squatting position. They assumed he was their mother! Imprinting occurs during a critical period… Konrad Lorenz and imprinting

Critical Periods A critical period is a specific period that is the only time when a particular skill can begin to develop or a particular association can occur. Critical periods appear to be the result of body chemistry, and must be part of all species, simply because they show up in so many places. For instance: v. Dogs will only form solid attachments with humans until about 12 weeks of age. v. People who want to learn a foreign language with the correct and natural accent need to do so before age 12.

Feral Children Studies of feral children--or children who have had minimal human contact-are looked at to shed light on what behaviors are learned and which ones are innate, and also to reveal human critical periods. The most famous example of a feral child is Victor, the wild boy of Aveyron. He was discovered at the age of 11 or 12 after living in the woods by himself for years. He had almost no “human” skills. In the case of Victor, the importance of critical periods and maturation within a social setting did show up. Victor eventually did learn the ways of society, in that he cleaned himself and ate the way we do. He also learned primitive speech and could print a few words, but he was never able to come close to what others his age could do in either area.

Another famous example is Genie, who was a victim of one of the most severe cases of social isolation in American history. Genie is the pseudonym for a feral child who spent nearly all the first thirteen years of her life locked inside a bedroom strapped to a potty chair. At night she was wrapped in a tight-fitting sleeping bag and placed in crib. Her father rarely allowed her mother or brother to leave the house or even to speak, and he expressly forbade them to speak to Genie was discovered by authorities on November 4, 1970 when he mother left her husband took Genie with her. The two entered a welfare office to seek benefits for the blind. A social worker guessed that Genie was 6 or years old and autistic. When it was revealed that she was actually 13, the social worker immediately called her supervisor, who then notified the sheriff’s department. Genie was almost entirely silent and had developed a characteristic “bunny walk, ” in which she held her hands up in front, like paws. She sniffed, spat, and clawed. Hospital staff attempted to nurture her to normality. About a year later, Genie had the language skills of a two-year-old. She became sociable with adults she was familiar with, she collected colorful plastic objects (to the point of hoarding), and she had a deep fascination with classical music played on the piano. She even learned to smile. Though Genie could communicate with others (particularly through nonverbal behavior), she could not master certain rules of grammar. Her speech level never progressed beyond that of a child of four or five years old. Genie had a good sense of humor, scored well on tests measuring spatial skills, and even learned to lie (a sure sign of cognitive development). Initially Genie was cared for in the Children’s Hospital of Los Angeles, then she moved between the house of the researchers who studied her, to foster homes, to her mother’s house. In some of the foster homes she was physically abused, and her development regressed severely. Genie now lives in a home for adults with disabilities in California. Psychologists exhibited great interests in the case due to its ability to reveal insights into the development of language and linguistic critical periods. Video

A study performed by Harry Harlow using rhesus monkeys also shows a critical period for attachment. • • In 1957, Harlow raised baby rhesus monkeys in complete isolation. The monkeys were placed in cages with “surrogate” or substitute mothers. One surrogate mother was made of stiff wire mesh with a bottle of milk attached to it, the other was made of the same wire mesh covered with soft terry cloth, but no milk. The monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth “mother, ” even though she did not have any milk. When frightened by a wind-up mechanical toy, they would run to the cloth mother for protection. Researchers concluded that the security and physical comfort the baby monkeys experienced from the terry-cloth surrogate was more important to them than the satisfaction they received from being fed. After being isolated for 3 months, the damage from isolation seemed irreversible. When emotional bonds were first established was the key to whether they could be established at all. None of the isolated monkeys was able to adjust when placed in a group of normal monkeys. Some hid in corners, burying their faces in their arms; others attacked members of the group. Often they would stare blankly, rock back and forth, and self-mutilate. None were able to mate naturally. Previously feeding was though to be the most important factor in the formation of the mother-child bond. This study showed that though food is obviously important, contact comfort is essential. All primate animals need intimate body contact from a caregiver to form an attachment and develop normally. Video

What we can learn from these studies/occurrences: 1) Windows of opportunity (Critical Period Theory) Certain things can be learned at one particular age/time and under certain circumstances, but they cannot be learned (at least not without great difficulty), if… ► Offered at other ages/times. ► Out of a certain sequence of learning. ► Under inappropriate conditions. Feral children (and Harlow’s monkeys) regardless of the special attention they received, were never able to reach normal levels of emotional linguistic, or intellectual development. 2) Human contact is needed for normal development. Deny this contact, and physical, social, emotional and cognitive development will be stunted.

Attachment The intense, enduring, social-emotional relationship an infant forms with a parent or caregiver is known as an attachment. Attachment is formed through touch and interaction. §Attachments: Influence the child’s development. Set the stage for later-life relationships.

Three attachment styles Clip: "The Strange Situation" The following attachment styles are based on observations of caregiver/child interactions by developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth. Later psychologists added a fourth called “Disorganized Attachment. ” 1) Avoidant, insecure attachment style --Ainsworth observed that the infant didn’t cry when separated from the caregiver and didn’t seek contact when she returned. --Common characteristics in later life: Fear of intimacy, expect for relationships to fail, often workaholics

2) Ambivalent, insecure attachment style --Ainsworth observed that the infant cried with fear when separated from the caregiver, but was also hard to console when she returned. --Common characteristics in later life: Very emotional, insecure, and prone to jealousy.

3) Secure attachment style --Ainsworth observed that the infant cried when separated from the caregiver, but was easily soothed when she returned. --Common characteristics in later life: Have positive self-concepts, are trusting, and value relationships.

ATTACHMENT SCENARIO Read the following paragraph. Which attachment style do you think this person likely possesses? Write the attachment style and why you think this in the space provided. 1. Sarah seems always to be in a relationship. However, these relationships usually sour fast. Her most recent break-up occurred because her boyfriend said she never gave him any space and was always saying how she couldn’t live without him. 2. Joseph has never been married. He dates a lot of different girls, and has no trouble engaging in casual sex, but he never seems to have a serious relationship. As soon as he starts to grow close with someone, he usually backs away, telling her he is “too busy at work to have a relationship. ” 3. Paul and Dana have been together for two years. Paul considers Dana his top priority. They spend a lot of time together, but they also spend time apart. Paul doesn’t worry when Dana goes out with her friends; he knows she is devoted to him.

§ The early years of life seem to be the critical period for the development of an attachment bond to a parent or caregiver. § Attachment is essential for proper development. A young child needs to develop a relationship in the early years of life with at least one primary caregiver for development to occur normally. Even an insecure attachment will do (though it obviously brings with it some problems). § Neglect, abuse, abrupt separation from caregivers, and frequent change of caregivers are all threats to attachment. § Parents who are consistently responsive, positive, and loving towards their children will likely have children with a secure attachment style. § Attachment styles are fairly stable, but they can change over time.

More on The Family A family that is made up of only parents and their children is referred to as a nuclear family. An extended family includes parents and other relatives, such as aunts, uncles, or grandparents. A blended family is formed when a single parent marries another person, who may or may not be a parent as well.

However, the American family today is much different than the family of 30 or 40 years ago. One change that has drastically affected American households has been divorce. Between 1950 and 1980, the divorce rates had climbed steadily. By the 1980 s, about half of all marriages were ending in divorce. The rate has now stabilized, but it hasn’t decreased much. This means that… about half of today’s children will spend some time in a single-parent family before they reach the age of 18.

The divorce rate is something to be concerned about, but so is marital conflict. Marital conflict effects children in this ways: 1) A great deal of arguing and fighting between parents tends to threaten their children’s sense of emotional security. 2) Watching parents fight fails to teach the children good ways to solve problems that arise between people, which leads to children often not knowing how to effectively deal with their own conflicts. And… 3) High levels of marital conflict lead to more adjustment problems in children. This is true both before and after a divorce. For some children, then, a divorce that actually brings an end to the conflict may be more preferable than continuing to experience arguments and marital conflicts between parents.

When a single parent remarries, creating a blended family, the children usually are not sure what the “new” parent means to their lives. Often, children resent step-parents and are afraid that they will try to take the place of their absent parent. When other children come into the picture, confusion and jealousy are bound to occur. However, there are two ways in which the new couple can make things easier on the children: 1) Go slowly. Allow time for all family members to become accustomed to the new arrangement rushing things only makes them worse. 2) Agree to back each other up. Discuss ahead of time what children should and should not be allowed to do.

The Role of the Working Mom Another change in family structure has to do with the roles family members play. Most families today need more than one income in order to have a decent standard of living. Today, nearly half of married women with infants now have jobs outside the home, and nearly 2/3 of all mothers do. Does the housework shift responsibilities with mom working full-time? Often not. Mom, after working a full day’s work, still performs the majority of the housework, especially the cooking and cleaning and most of the child-rearing as well. Studies show it is important for both parents to be involved in caring for the children, not only for the benefit of the children, but also to ensure both parents are happier and more satisfied with their lives (this makes the children happier too!).

Mothers play an important part in their children’s lives and are typically the first persons babies become attached to. So, if a mother works outside of the home on a full-time basis, are her children harmed in any way? The answer is no. In a study of thousands of subjects over a period of several years, even when mothers worked outside the home during the first three years of their children’s lives, no negative effects were discovered. Researchers concluded the most important thing is not the amount of time itself, but whether the children feel loved and cared for. Furthermore, children’s attachment to the employed mother seems to be the same as to the homemaker mother (given a general sense from the mother of love and acceptance).

FATHERS AND CHILDREN Fathers are important to children’s development. Studies show having a warm, affectionate father helps children become independent and feel worthwhile. Again, the most important thing is that children feel loved and cared for. This is definitely easier to do in certain situations (such as where two parents share the load), but it is possible in almost all situations!

CHILD ABUSE Disc ipline and guidelines help a child to grow psyc hologically, but the type of disciplining techniques or pun ishments that parents use is equally important. Ph ysic al pu nishment, such as hitting, slapping, and so on, is not a good way to handle problems according to child develop ment experts. It doesn’t help the child learn very much about w hat is right and wrong, it models violence, and it c an a lso get out of control fairly easily (thus bec oming abuse). Ty pes of c hild abuse: Physical--causing severe pain or bodily harm Psychological--behaving in a way that causes emotional or mental harm to the child (threats, insults, humiliation, etc. ) Sexual--using a child for sexual pleasure Neglect--lack of attention and adequate care

The mistreatment of children results in the death of about 1, 400 children each year. Many more are injured or harmed. Whether a parent will be abusive depends on a lot of different factors. Some conditions that make abuse more likely: § Not knowing much about children (thus expectations are too high). § Example: They don’t know how old a baby must be before he or she can be toilet trained or before he or she will sleep through the night. § A lack of maturity. Abusive parents are often looking for love from a baby rather than understanding how much responsibility is involved in being a parent.

§ Coming from an abusive background. Often (but not always!), abusive parents come from abusive backgrounds themselves. § Other factors leading to child abuse are: financial problems, unemployment, too much stress, substance abuse/addiction, psychological problems, and isolation or being far away from friends and family. § For many of these reasons, teenage parents are more likely to abuse their children than people who become parents at a later age. Child abuse can greatly affect a child’s development (and not for the better).

Long-term consequences of child abuse/neglect include: Physical health problems Mental health problems Re-victimization Alcohol and substance abuse Aggressive and criminal behavior

Sequences of Development One of the most important advances in understanding children has been the discovery that we develop in the physical, moral, and intellectual areas in a sequential fashion. Nature requires that the brain and nervous system grow and mature before certain events occur. Here is an example of sequential development: Separation anxiety– a baby’s fear of being away from the parent or caregiver. This usually begins 9 to 12 months after birth; it is a normal part of development and is found in every culture. Separation anxiety, along with the development of other fears, is a sign the child is developing cognitively. It will disappear as the child continues to mature.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development § Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who studied the sequence of cognitive development. His theory seems to apply to most children and explains why they see the world the way they do. §Cognitive development is the way in which a child’s thinking and reasoning changes and grows. §Piaget divided this development into four basic stages:

1) Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) Children use sensation and movement to learn. Concept of object permanence – or the awareness that specific objects are real and exist all by themselves - is not present at birth (“out of sight, out of mind”), but first starts to appear around 10 months of age. Symbolic thought begins to develop during this stage. Children begin to name things. Thus, the brain has replaced reaching for a bottle (motor) and getting it (sensation) with a symbol –-that is, the word representing that object--“bottle. ” The child moves from a world of all sensations and movements to a world of thought! Clip: information on object permanence

2) Preoperational Stage (2 years to 7 years) § § During this stage, language develops at an extremely fast rate, and the child’s vocabulary expands enormously. Many symbols, or words, are used to represent actions and subjects. Children at this stage make many logical errors. They exhibit animistic thinking – or the process of believing that various objects have the same feelings they do. Because of this type of thought, children in this stage tend to have long discussions with these objects. This goes along with egocentrism--children in this stage are only able to see the world from their own point of reference. Clip illustrating egocentrism

-- Also, they cannot understand the principle of reversibility, which is the idea that a relationship that goes in one direction can go in the other also. -- Finally, children at this stage cannot grasp the concept of conservation, or the idea that some of an object’s characteristics can be changed while others remain the same. For example, changing shape does not change volume. Clip illustrating conservation skills (or lack thereof)

3) Concrete Operations Stage (7 to 11 years) Children understand that there is a real world with real objects that exist apart from themselves and can be manipulated. The child is now increasingly able to reason in a logical way, and seeing things from someone else’s viewpoint is no longer a problem in this stage. Though they will no longer make the logical errors made during the preoperational stage, children in the concrete operations stage are still limited. They have trouble reasoning about things they cannot see or touch--abstract ideas. Clip illustrating lack of abstract reasoning

4) Formal Operations Stage (11 years and onward) Children now have the ability to deal with highly symbolic and abstract thoughts found in logic, math, philosophy, and ethics. They can understand concepts not dependent on the senses. According to Piaget, this stage is the highest level of cognitive development, but it is also the most controversial in terms of possible effects of cultural differences--reaching it depends largely on becoming familiar with the type of scientific and critical thinking most often taught at the high school level in industrialized countries. You can spot the development of formal operations in those who suddenly become idealistic--concerned about issues such as truth, justice, and personal rights.

Social Development/Play Behavior Social development, like cognitive development, it follows a maturational sequence. Three stages: 1) Solitary play (infants) Children play by themselves with no acknowledgement of other children around them. May interact a bit with parent or caregiver during play. 2) Parallel play (young toddlers) Children play side-by-side with little interaction with children around them. Children may grab each other’s toys, but “true” play does not occur. 3) Cooperative (or social) play ( 3 +) Children interact with others and engage in “true” play. Play behavior often imitates the work of grown-ups.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Moral development also seems to follow a maturational sequence, or a series of stages. Moral development refers to the development of a conscience, or the knowledge of right and wrong. This theory of moral development was developed by Lawrence Kohlberg (October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987) was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University. As in Piaget’s system, there is not necessarily a fixed pattern of development that fits every single person, and a person may not reach the higher stages. With Piaget’s stages, one can’t really go backwards. With Kohlberg’s stages, on the other hand, a person may be capable of a high level of moral reasoning but still behave at a lower level (sometimes or all the time).

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Chart Level 1: Preconventional 2: Conventional 3: Postconventional Who Stage Description Young children; some adolescents and adults 1 Punishment-Avoidance and Obedience 2 Exchange of Favors / Self. Interest Older children; some adolescents and adults 3 “Good Boy / Good Girl” Orientation 4 Law and Order Reached by some adolescents and adults 5 Social Contract 6 Universal Ethical Principles

AT WHICH STAGE OF MORALITY IS THIS MAN IS FUNCTIONING?

The Development of Language Skills Language also develops in a sequence. Psychologists study communication in any form, even communication among and by animals. Some chimpanzees are capable of communicating via sign language. Some chimps know over 1, 000 words! Despite the chimpanzees’ remarkable feats, it appears that only humans are destined to speak--to communicate through a verbal language. We are the only creatures with both the physical structures needed to make all the sounds and the brains to make rules of grammar and invent new words.

Processes of Language Babbling is a natural activity for babies – even deaf ones who cannot hear their own or others’ voices. Buried in all of these noises are the sounds used in any human language: A basic blue-print of all speech sounds is programmed in the infant from birth. The environment, by providing examples to imitate, then guides each infant to the correct speech pattern for the society within which that infant lives. Language patterns develop because certain sounds are reinforced (or rewarded) whenever they occur. The sounds for Da-da and Ma-ma are among the first to be learned because they bring so much joy to the parents.

Rules of Language In the process of learning to speak, children follow rigid, fixed rules. Some of these rules lead to common mistakes when children are learning to talk: 1. Adding the ‘er’ at the end of a word and applying it to almost any word to indicate a greater degree of something. example: someone who breaks a cup on purpose is “badder” than someone who breaks one on accident. 2. Adding an ‘s’ to the end of nearly all words in order to pluralize them. example: “Those mans feeding corns to the sheeps. ” Correcting children does not affect their loyalty to these rules. They keep on making the same mistakes, even though no one else speaks this way. Thus, grammar involving plurals and other rules is artificial and learned only from reinforcement at a later stage of development.

Biology and Language We are biologically programmed to learn language, but we need the environment to build on this capacity. Since sounds, word arrangements, and accents all vary from culture to culture and even from one section of a country to another, it is obvious that environment plays a critical role in speech development. But, almost everyone agrees we inherit the potential for speech sounds. It is also obvious that sounds and words have to be stored over time, and this process in the normal child depends on brain development.

By age 2: the average child knows about 300 words. By age 3: the average child knows roughly 1, 000 words. By age 6: the average child can correctly use 5, 000 words and understands nearly 10, 000. By adulthood: the average adult has a vocabulary of 10, 000 words, but can grasp the meaning of at least 50, 000. Humans are born to talk, and we will spend most of our lives in the world of words!