X MEMORY A Memory as an information processing

X. MEMORY

A. Memory as an information processing system. 1. Computer metaphor. . . n 2. 4 steps or components. n a. Attention: (info is remembered only if it is noticed. ) n b. Encoding: getting info into memory. c. Storage: keeping encoded info in memory. d. Retrieval: getting info out of memory.

B. Overall process.

C. Sensory Memory Where we initially record sensory input or stimuli into memory. n Stores ALL stimuli that senses register n Holds LITERAL copies of those stimuli but for fraction of second to 3 seconds n

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How many letters can you recall? n Did information NEVER register? n – (We can only register so much info. at once). n Or – did the image fade before you had to report letters?

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C. Sensory Memory n 1. Iconic Memory: Fleeting photographic memory (visual stimuli). n 2. Echoic Memory: Fleeting auditory memory (sound). – Why do we need sensory memory?

D. Short Term Memory 1. Description: n Stores info from sensory memory before it’s forgotten or is put into Long-Term Memory. n To get info from sensory memory to short term memory: n – Only info that we pay attention to n But – we have limited attentional resources – so short term memory is limited.

D. Short Term Memory n 2. Has limited capacity. (7 +- 2) – only small amount of info from sensory memory is transferred to short term memory n 2. Has limited duration. – 10 -15 seconds n To get info from sensory to short term – so that it can be put into long term memory: – Use rehearsal/repetition: keep attention on stimuli. (say numbers over and over again or visualize them) – Use tricks to group info to increase capacity.

1 n 3 n 8 n 6 n 2 n 5 n 8 0 3 8 9 3 9 1 0 2 1 7 2 9 1 4 0 9 4 1 0 7 0 2 1 2 6 3 8 1 2 4 6

B. Overall process.

D. Short Term Memory n 3. Comparison to working memory. – More “active” version of short term memory. – Focus on attention part. – Two major systems: verbal sounds, visual/spatial – Filter out unimportant info, focus on important info.

E. Long Term Memory 1. Description: - The stored representation of all that a person knows. - Has unlimited capacity. - Is long-lasting. n 2. Encoding: how we get info from ST to LT memory. n

E. Long Term Memory 2. Encoding n a. Rehearsal: conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus’ research - rehearsed nonsense syllables. (BAZ FUB TUV LEQ VUM) - more rehearsed – more remembered. - is effective in getting info from ST to LT memory? - Spacing rehearsal over time

E. Long Term Memory 2. Encoding n b. Elaboration: Rehearse/understand info at deeper level. How? i. Differences in how info is encoded. – Craik & Tulving (1975) » visual » acoustic » semantic (meaning) Use images/stories

E. Long Term Memory 2. Encoding i. Differences in what/how info is encoded. – Self-Reference Effect: Tend to remember things that are related to ourselves better.

E. Long Term Memory 2. Encoding n ii. Using organization to better encoding. – Chunking: put information into meaningful units or chunks. – Hierarchies: Chunk information into broad categories that are divided into narrower categories. » Your class outlines

E. Long Term Memory n c. Forgetting in the encoding stage. – Draw a penny… – Encoding failure. n If encoding is successful, and information goes from ST to LT memory… – Goes to “storage” phase.

B. Overall process.

E. Long Term Memory 3. Storage n a. Two types of memories: Implicit or procedural: memories that allow for learning. i. – – Motor and cognitive skills Skills do not require conscious recall Explicit or declarative: memories that let us know info and state that we know info. ii. – – Facts/general knowledge Personally experienced events.

E. Long Term Memory 3. Storage n b. Forgetting in the storage stage n – Decay Theory: If never use or work on info stored in LT memory, may be forgotten.

E. Long-Term Memory 3. Storage (what/where is it in the brain? ) c. Neurobiology in memory. i. Brain structure: n – Hippocampus » is essential for encoding newly acquired information (explicit). » H. M. : anterograde (can’t form new LT memories) (has short-term/working memory, and implicit memory) vs. retrograde amnesia (can’t retrieve existing LT memories) » NOT only structure involved in memory. ii. Neurons – ACH (Alzheimer’s)

E. Long Term Memory n 4. Retrieval: To actually remember info and use it, need to retrieve it from LT storage (put it into ST or working memory). a. LT memory has “web-like” structure importance of cues priming: the activation of particular associations in memory.

E. Long Term Memory n 4. Retrieval b. Influences on retrieval. Encoding Specificity: Cues that are prominent in person’s mind during original encoding into LT memory are the most effective cues at retrieval.

E. Long Term Memory Examples of Encoding Specificity: i. Context Effects: Being in context similar to n encoding at time of retrieval may facilitate remembering (e. g. smells) ii. State-Dependent Memory: Have better recall if we are in same state at retrieval as we were in encoding. iii. Mood Congruent Memory: Mood also serves as a retrieval cue.

E. Long Term Memory c. Forgetting in the retrieval stage. n i. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: Retrieve parts of memory that must be put into a whole. n ii. Interference: Learning new info can interfere with retrieving old info. - Proactive Interference: something learned earlier disrupts recall of info learned later. - Retroactive Interference: new info makes it harder to recall something learned earlier. n

F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? Discussed reason why we “forget” information. n But, when we do recall information, is it always correct? n Retrieving memories involves RECONSTRUCTION. n

F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? 1. Motivated “Forgetting”: n What we do & do not remember is biased by what we want & expect to see. n – Consistency – Improvement

F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? n 2. Memory Reconstruction. – Importance of schemas - filling in gaps of memory. n What happens if “fill in gaps” with incorrect information? – Loftus & Palmer (1974)

F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? Misinformation Effect: Incorporating incorrect information into our memory of an event. n Are these people lying? n

F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? B. Applications n Eyewitness Testimony n Repressed Memories Debate n How can we tell true from false memories? n

3 key parts n 4 key processes n How to better remember info: n – rehearse (space rehearsal) – encoding stage: elaborate, deeply encode info » use meaning, self as cue, images, etc. » use chunks, hierarchies » test to see you encoded info at all – retrieval stage » avoid interference » reinstate the context (state, mood, etc. )