Writing your Dissertation Alex Adams Writing Development Centre

Writing your Dissertation Alex Adams Writing Development Centre

This Session The Dissertation • • Introduction Literature review Methods Results Discussion Conclusion Abstract Editing and Proofreading your Dissertation

§ Can you tell the person who is sitting next to you what your dissertation is about? § Try to do this in one sentence. § If you can’t, start and try again until you can. 3 minutes…

What is a dissertation? • A structured piece of writing that develops a clear argument in response to a central research question • Independent research project • Divided into discrete sections or chapters • Original piece of research

The Shape of a Dissertation Introduction and literature review Methods Results Discussion and Conclusions

The Shape of a Dissertation A dissertation needs to say three major things. 1. What’s the context of your research? 2. What did you ask? 3. What did you find? What major sections do you need, in your dissertation, to achieve this?

Introduction Your introduction needs to establish three major things. • What are you doing? • Why are you doing it? • How will you do it?

Introduction The writing in introductions is often largely functional, as opposed to critical or analytical. Your introduction is there to establish several important things, including: • The context of your research question • The gap in existing knowledge that your research addresses • The specific question you are asking in order to address this gap • The aims and objectives of your study – what you are investigating and how specifically you will do this • What is at stake in your research. Why is your work interesting?

Introduction Your introduction will initiate the reader into your study, so it needs to contain key information that will help the reader understand follow your work. For example, your introduction may contain: • Definitions of key terms. Sometimes terms are used in multiple ways, so it’s important to tell your reader how you are using all of the major terms and ideas. • A brief survey of related material. Although you will leave in-depth analysis of other scholarship to your literature review, you could use part of the introduction to mention important work in the field. This may help you identify your research gap.

Introduction Your introduction will initiate the reader into your study, so it needs to contain key information that will help the reader understand follow your work. For example, your introduction may contain: • Aims. Your main question will be broken down into smaller questions. These will be the clear and measurable aims of your dissertation. • Objectives. Your objectives are the specific activities that constitute your study – the tasks that you will undertake in order to collect the data that you will use to answer your question.

Literature Review Briefly, a literature review is: • A survey of the existing scholarship on your topic, which provides historical and intellectual context • A discussion of the concepts and theories that you are using to explain your work • A critical and analytical discussion of the current debates and controversies in your research area • A narrative that provides a rationale for the work that you are doing

Literature Review The literature review tells the reader what relationship your work bears to existing scholarship. It should: • Demonstrate how your current work builds upon or deviates from existing research, and explain why • For example, are there major theories you draw on, modify, or disregard? • Show your work will extend and develop knowledge in the field • What is it about your work that will add to the debates that you are interested in?

Literature Review An effective literature review requires a variety of academic skills, including: Research skills • Conducting effective literature searches • Recognising and selecting relevant resources • Planning Analytical skills • Critiquing sources, and identifying their strengths and weaknesses • Identifying areas of controversy, common trends, and gaps in the existing scholarship

Literature Review An effective literature review requires a variety of academic skills, including: Writing skills • Effectively structuring your work • Retaining an authoritative voice whilst synthesising a lot of complex material • Writing critically rather than descriptively • Presenting your work in a clear, formal academic tone

Literature Review: Research skills Read a lot. In order to avoid becoming overwhelmed by material, read selectively and strategically. • Use indexes to find information quickly • Follow up references in other authors’ bibliographies • Think about how you are going to use the information you are searching for

Literature Review: Research skills When taking notes on texts, lectures or other resources, try to get into the habit of distilling the main points into a clear and usable format. Of course, there are no “right answers” about how to do this! Work in whatever way is effective for you.

Literature Review: Research skills Things to remember: • Clearly distinguish between your summaries and “direct quotations”. • Record the full bibliographic details of all the sources you read. • Plan your material in any way that helps you think clearly about it, but when you write it up it will have to take a linear form.

Example: Mind map (Source text: Genetics and Diabetes, WHO, www. who. int/genomics/about/Diabetes-fin. pdf) Infant nutrition Viruses Causes of rapid growth? 3% growth annually Hygiene Environmental factors Role of environmental factors: initiators/ accelerators/ precipitators HLA Class II genes (IDDM 1) Genetic factors Type 1 diabetes: Risk factors Incidence of Type 1 diabetes INS gene (IDDM 2) CTLA-4 gene Predictive genetic testing possible in the future Implications

Example: Outline (Source text: Genetics and Diabetes, WHO, www. who. int/genomics/about/Diabetes-fin. pdf) § Introduction: Type 1 diabetes § 10% of all cases of diabetes § Caused by autoimmune destruction of beta cells in the pancreas § Large geographic variation in incidence; also seasonal variation § 3% annual growth in the incidence of T 1 D § Environmental risk factors § Enteroviruses § Infant nutrition (TD 1 children breast-fed for shorter periods than non-diabetic children) § Hygiene (delayed exposure to microorganisms due to improvements in living standards) § Environmental risk factors act as ‘initiators’ or ‘accelerators’ of beta cell autoimmunity or ‘precipitators’ of overt symptoms in individuals with evidence of beta cell destruction § Genetic risk factors § HLA Class II genes (IDDM 1) § INS gene (IDDM 2) § CTLA-4 gene § Implications § Impact of environmental factors on growing incidence of T 1 D (and possible action? ) § Need for further research into genetic factors (other genes? ) § Development of predictive genetic testing (and difficulties achieving this) § Ethical, legal and social issues associated with widespread use of genetic testing

Literature Review: Analytical skills Read critically. Put simply, this just means asking questions about the material that is in front of you rather than accepting it at face value.

Literature Review: Analytical skills Questions that help you think about your sources more critically can include: • What are the main claims or arguments of this text? • Does the evidence support these claims? • Do you agree with the way that the evidence is interpreted? • Is there any evidence that you know of that can disprove or modify these claims? • Does this text have a relationship to other texts that you have read? If so, how? • Is this text part of a trend?

Literature Review: Writing skills Good writing anticipates the questions of an interested reader. • State your position clearly and concisely. • A good literature review will evaluate the state of the literature as a whole, rather than providing a list of reviews of individual articles or sources. • Use signposting language to guide the reader through the sections and to link sentences and paragraphs.

Literature Review: Writing skills Some ways to avoid writer’s block and procrastination: • Start with the section that excites you the most or that seems the least of a headache. • Use headings and subheadings to help you structure your writing. • Work on different sections rather than persevering too much with one that is currently vexing you. Come back to it when you’re clearer about it. • Discuss your work with peers.

Literature Review: Writing skills Move from the general to the specific when organising the structure of your points. GENERAL SPECIFIC

Literature Review: Writing skills One way of achieving this is to consider both knowledge-based elements and argumentation elements. This can help you in order to synthesise the information you have gathered into a clear argument. Put simply: 1. What do you know? 2. How does this affect your research?

Literature Review: Writing skills Knowledge-based elements: A description of previous work on the topic, identifying leading concepts, definitions, theories and/or methodologies. Argumentation elements: A compelling case for your research, showing that your research will in some way make a contribution to the discipline.

Writing skills: Paragraphs • Topic Sentence • Evidence • Discussion • Signposting

Writing skills: Paragraphs 1. Topic Sentence. A clear statement of the idea or example that is the main subject of the paragraph. 2. Evidence. You should provide some evidence to back up the points you are making in the paragraph.

Writing skills: Paragraphs 3. Discussion. Evaluate the evidence critically and relate it back to the point you are establishing. 4. Signposting. Remind the reader how the material that you have discussed in this paragraph is relevant to your overall argument or position. Include some signalling language to indicate how it is connected to the paragraph that follows.

Writing skills: Paragraphs Self-assessment can also develop skills which make a student more attractive to prospective employers. Employers value students with skills in self-assessment because these types of skills are relevant to a wide range of employment contexts (Jennings, 2011). They want graduates who can accurately assess their own competencies in performing tasks. Students who can do this are well placed to take on responsibilities and adapt readily to roles in workplaces. The value in developing these types of assessment can be seen to go beyond meeting immediate educational needs. Students who have developed an autonomous approach to learning are well set up for lifelong learning which will continue through and beyond their working lives. There are many other ways students can develop these skills. Topic Sentence Evidence (paraphrased citation) Discussion Conclusion, with signposting

Writing skills: Style There a variety of styles you may be expected to produce when writing at university, each of which has specific demands and expectations. Overall, however, all good academic writing is explicit, clear, economical and concise; it is formal in language and style; and it is precise in expression and choice of words. This is easier said than done!

Writing skills: Style 1. Read a lot. Read plenty of high-quality professional writing in your field, and practice imitating the style. Note key phrases, common ways of presenting ideas, and effective ways of transitioning between paragraphs. 2. Anticipate the questions that an interested reader will want answered. A reader should not have to guess about the connections between ideas or infer your position.

Writing skills: Style 3. Keep it simple. Sophisticated ideas can be expressed in straightforward language. Sometimes the simplest way of expressing something is the best. You can always add more substance to it later in the literature review when you are explaining your points in more depth. http: //www. phrasebank. manchester. ac. uk/

Writing skills: Citations 1. Clearly indicate which words and ideas come from other writers and which words and ideas are your own. This is important for the avoidance of plagiarism. 2. Don’t let quotations speak for you. Let your reader know the extent to which you agree with the material you are citing, and make it clear why you have included it. This is important for the criticality of your work.

Writing skills: Citations 3. Make sure that you incorporate quotations into your writing so that they fit seamlessly with the grammar, sentence structure, and style of your writing. This is important for the presentation and readability of your work. 4. Use the style guide provided by your school or department so that your work conforms to your marker’s expectations. Take the time to learn the expected referencing conventions.

Writing skills: Citations Existing evidence is inconclusive (Burrie 1999). As Burrie (1999) points out, the existing evidence is inconclusive. According to Burrie (1999), the existing evidence is inconclusive. However, … Burrie (1999) argues that the existing evidence is inconclusive. However, …

Writing skills: Citations Consider how each of these verbs changes the way that the citation works. • • Argue Claim Demonstrate Miscalculate Omit Show Reveal Suggest

Methods sections can vary greatly, depending on the kind of project you are working on and the kind of data you are working with. Some features may include: • • • Sampling technique Materials and procedure Variables Coding system Analytical framework Ethical considerations

Results Like methods sections, the nature of results sections is largely determined by the nature of the project. Projects that require a lot of statistical information will be different from projects based on interviews! Things to remember: • Always label tables, graphs, and diagrams clearly • Don’t use this section to interpret your results – that’s what the discussion is for

Discussion Extrapolate general points from the specific data you have collected. SPECIFIC GENERAL

Discussion Whereas your literature review establishes the context in which you are working, your discussion relates your specific findings back to the broader context. This may involve: • Critical interpretation of your results • Relating your results back to your hypotheses and your questions • Generalisations about your results • Remarks about any limitations to your study and potential improvements that could be made

Conclusions do not need to say anything new. Typical features include: • A summary of your main findings • Recommendations or implications for practice, if necessary or appropriate • A clear and honest appraisal of your work • Recommendations for future research

Abstract An abstract is a clear and short summary of the entire dissertation. They can be challenging to write!

Abstract A Comparison of Student Responses to Written and Audiotaped Feedback on Written Work: A case study of three Taiwanese students This dissertation looks at how effective two different types of teacher-given feedback are in prompting student revisions in the second draft of a text. The two types of feedback given are audiotaped feedback (ATF) and written comments in the margins and at the end of the essay. Three international students of similar ability were chosen from the University Summer School. Two drafts of two pieces of work were gathered from each student (12 pieces of work in total). The types of comment given were analysed, as were the types of changes made, to investigate whether the types of feedback given had an impact on the types of revisions made. Although far from conclusive, the findings suggest that audiotaped feedback, of the form given, is more effective in encouraging a heightened sense of response to audience than written commentary.

Abstract “This dissertation looks at how effective two different types of teacher-given feedback are in prompting student revisions in the second draft of a text. The two types of feedback given are audiotaped feedback (ATF) and written comments in the margins and at the end of the essay. ” These sentences introduce the project.

Abstract “Three international students of similar ability were chosen from the University Summer School. Two drafts of two pieces of work were gathered from each student (12 pieces of work in total). The types of comment given were analysed, as were the types of changes made, to investigate whether the types of feedback given had an impact on the types of revisions made. ” These sentences describe the methodology.

Abstract “Although far from conclusive, the findings suggest that audiotaped feedback, of the form given, is more effective in encouraging a heightened sense of response to audience than written commentary. ” These sentences reveal the conclusions of the study.

Abstract An abstract requires three things. • An introduction to what your project does • Some words about your methods • A summary of the major findings

Editing and Proofreading Editing and proofreading are fundamental aspects of good academic practice. Editing is the process of revising and improving your written work. It is often an activity that forms a major part of the writing process. Proofreading is the final check before printing and submission. It is a process that helps remove errors and improve presentation.

Editing General principles of drafting your work: 1. Allow plenty of time. Like all creativity, academic writing takes time, patience, and persistence. 2. Consider your reader. Imagine that you are encountering your work for the first time. Have you provided all the information that a first-time reader will need to understand what you are saying?

Editing General principles of drafting your work: 3. Be realistic. Although it may sometimes be painful to admit, most pieces of writing will never be perfect. It is important to be able to recognise when you have done enough. 4. Be kind to yourself. This is important. Take a break from writing before you start revising your draft, and take regular breaks while you’re working. Give yourself rewards when you feel like you’ve done worthwhile work. This really helps you stay motivated and productive!

Editing: Paragraphs 1. What is this paragraph about? What is the main information that this paragraph communicates to the reader? 2. How is this related to your argument or position? What is it about this material that helps you answer the question? 3. What is the function of this paragraph? What does this paragraph do structurally for your essay? How is it related to the material around it?

Editing • Definitions of terms. Are all of your important terms clearly defined? If there is no scholarly consensus, have you told the reader how you are using terms? • Vocabulary. Are technical or specialist terms correctly used? • Labels. If you have used tables, graphs, diagrams, or images, are they correctly and clearly labelled?

Editing • Section headings. If your work is broken down into sections, are these appropriately clear? Are there enough headings? Are they necessary? • Grammar, punctuation, and spelling. These aspects of presentation often cause anxiety for students. Take the time to check whether or not you have made any errors here. Seek feedback if you’re not sure.

Proofreading is the practice of checking your writing for errors. It is part of the editing process, as you will proofread drafts of your writing to identify places you can improve it. It is also the final thing you will do when you check your work over before submission. It can be surprisingly difficult, particularly when you have worked on something for a long time and are still very close to it.

Proofreading source: http: //www. slate. com/blogs/future_tense/2014/11/11/_crappy_gabor_paper_overly_honest_citation_slips_into_peer_reviewed_journ al. html

Proofreading Let the work cool. Come back to the work after doing something else so you can look at it afresh. Seek help. Get a fellow student or a flatmate to check your writing. Others will often spot things that you have missed. Read aloud. You may feel silly doing this, but it’s worth it! Reading your work aloud can allow you to encounter your writing in a different way and identify errors, repetitions, or omissions.

Proofreading • Does this say what I think it says? • Could I say this differently? • Does my grammar work?

Proofreading Note: the University does not provide a proofreading service.

Final considerations Bear these things in mind throughout the writing process. • What are your school/degree guidelines for completing a dissertation? • When is the deadline? • What is the word limit? • What reference system are you expected to use? • What have you learned from feedback on your proposal? • Do you have a schedule planned for completing each stage of your work?

Useful Resources Macmillan Dictionary Online http: //www. macmillandictionary. com Academic Phrasebank http: //www. phrasebank. manchester. ac. uk/ University of Toronto The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting It http: //www. writing. utoronto. ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literaturereview Writing your dissertation (see, especially, 4. 1: Using a self-evaluation checklist, page 11) http: //www. studyskills. soton. ac. uk/studyguides/Writing%20 Your%20 Disserta tion. doc

The Writing Development Centre Address: Writing Development Centre Level 2, Room 202 Robinson Library Book an appointment online at: http: //www. ncl. ac. uk/students/wdc/support/ Opening times: Monday to Friday 9 am to 5 pm