Writing in an academic style The University of

Writing in an academic style The University of Sydney Law School Presented by Dr Maria Chisari Learning Centre Semester 1, 2020 The University of Sydney Page 1

Outline of the workshop: In this workshop, we will look at: • Formal and technical language (authoritative) • Impersonal language (objective) • analytical and abstract language (analytical and focussed) • reporting verbs • Online resources The University of Sydney Page 2

Features of spoken and written style Spoken style Written style Casual spoken: Academic written: Interactive Non-interactive Face to face Distanced Spontaneous Planned Casual Semi-formal to formal Formal Non-technical Technical The University of Sydney Page 3 3

Text A: Spoken Language The topic of my talk is ‘Are Mining Activities in Southern Papua New Guinea Affecting the Water Quality in Torres Strait? ’ In this. . . um talk I hope to answer this question um by presenting the results of a number of experiments that I’ve done. But first off I want to introduce the talk by giving you a little bit of background about why this question is being asked. There are two major mines in Southern Papua New Guinea. . . both are located on tributaries of the Fly River. Now the Fly River is an enormous river. . . in terms of sediment load it’s bigger than all the rivers in the. . . on the Australian continent combined. The largest of the mines, the Ok Tedi mine, is located on the eastern side of the catchment, the Ok Tedi River, which is a tributary of the Fly and the mine itself is at Mount Fibulin which is actually the sacred mountain of the Wopkymin people. The University of Sydney Page 4

Features of spoken texts Interactive, face-to-face: personal: The topic of my talk is ‘Are Mining Activities in Southern Papua New Guinea Affecting the Water Quality in Torres Strait? ’ In this. . . um talk I hope to answer this question um by presenting the results of a number of experiments that I’ve done. • • Signposting: phrases: But first off I want to introduce the talk by giving you a little bit of background about why this question is being asked. • Informal and less technical language: There are two major mines in Southern Papua New Guinea. . . both are located on tributaries of the Fly River. Now the Fly River is an enormous river. . . in terms of sediment load it’s bigger than all the rivers in the. . . on the Australian continent combined. The University of Sydney Page 5

Text B: Written Language In this study, the composition of suspended sediment in water samples collected in the turbidity maximum is examined and compared with seabed samples. The area under investigation is reviewed and possible sediment movement can then be assessed and the origin of the turbidity maximum in Torres Strait is discussed. Area under investigation: Fly Delta and Torres Strait Sediments in suspension in Torres Strait waters could be derived directly from fluvial sources or from the erosion and suspension of seabed deposits. Thus, the Fly River and surficial deposits of Torres Strait must both be investigated as possible sources of the observed turbidity. Fly River The Fly River system of south-western Papua New Guinea is a major fluvial system by World standards (Table 1). Although it drains an area of only ~76000 km 2, its sediment load is comparable with that shed from the entire Australian continent… As a result of high rainfall, steep topography and high runoff, suspended sediment concentrations in the river water are typically The University of Sydney Page 6 600 mg/L.

Features of Written Texts • Non-interactive, distanced: objective, impersonal In this study, the composition of suspended sediment in water samples collected in the turbidity maximum is examined and compared …. is discussed. • Signposting: headings: Area under investigation: Fly Delta and Torres Strait Sediments in suspension in Torres Strait waters could be derived directly from fluvial sources or from the erosion and suspension of seabed deposits. Thus, the Fly River and surficial deposits of Torres Strait must both be investigated as possible sources of the observed turbidity. • Formal and technical language: Fly River The Fly River system of south-western Papua New Guinea is a major fluvial system by World standards (Table 1). Although it drains an area of only ~76000 km 2, its sediment load is comparable with that shed from the entire Australian continent. Estimates of the natural suspension and total loads of the Fly (measured at Ogwa, just downstream of the Fly/Strickland junction; Fig. 2) are 102 and 115 Mt/annum respectively (Ok Tedi Mining Ltd. 1987, p. 23). Page 7 The University of Sydney

Language Focus: shifting from written/spoken Features of written text: Text B Features of spoken text: Text A Abstract language Concrete language Annual rainfall in the headwaters The largest of the mines, the Ok Tedi mine, is of the Fly exceeds 9000 mm and located on the eastern side of the catchment, the Ok the discharge of the Fly is Tedi River, which is a tributary of the Fly and the 6000 m 3/s. As a result of the high mine itself is at Mount Fibulin which is actually the rainfall, steep topography (in the sacred mountain of the Wopkymin people. headwaters) and high runoff, Now the mining process involves the removal of the suspended sediment whole top of the mountain so it’s fast becoming their concentrations in the river water sacred lake. are typically 600 mg/L. The location of the largest of Every year, it rains a lot where the Fly river begins, in the mines, the Ok Tedi mine, is on the eastern side of the catchment, the Ok Tedi River, a tributary of the Fly. The specific location of the mine is at the sacred mountain of the Wopkymin people, Mt Fibulin. The removal of the mountain top during the mining process The University of Sydney has resulted in the creation of a fact it is much greater than 9000 millimetres. In comparison, in Australia, the wettest place is Tully where the annual rainfall is more than 4000 millimetres. The Fly flows at the rate of 6000 cubic metres per second. Because it rains so much and the land is very steep at the source of the Fly, this means that a lot of the rain runs off so there is a lot of solid material from the steep slopes in the river, in fact there is about 600 milligrams of solid material in every litre of river water. Page 8

Formal vocabulary verbs: • define, identify, demonstrate, clarify, influence, investigate nouns: • definition, identification, demonstration, clarification, investigation adjectives: • substantial, considerable, significant, major, crucial adverbs/adverbial groups: • substantially, considerably, significantly, crucially, however, in contrast conjunctions: • although, whereas, while, because The University of Sydney Page 9 9

Compare Texts A and B TEXT A TEXT B It has been argued that if the bad consequences of violent acts are shown on TV, children aren't going to copy them. This sounds alright, but maybe the bad consequences themselves will be violent too and children will just end up exposed to even more violence on the screen. It has been argued that if the negative consequences of violent acts are shown on television, children will not imitate them. While this seems reasonable, the negative consequences themselves may also be violent and children will ultimately be exposed to increasing levels of violence on the screen. The University of Sydney Page 10

Formal vocabulary Some of the main differences in vocabulary between Text A and B Informal/Colloquial Formal verbs aren’t going to copy Sounds end up looking at will not imitate Seems ultimately be exposed to nouns TV television adjectives bad all right negative reasonable conjunctions but however intensifiers too just even more also only increasing (levels) The University of Sydney Page 11 1

Formal vocabulary Verbs: Generally, you do not contract verbs: write the full form • E. g. do not, not don’t, would not, not wouldn’t Phrasal verbs, e. g. get rid of, bring up, set up use the more formal form • i. e. eliminate, raise/mention, arrange Nouns: Contractions of common terms tend to be informal • E. g. TV Conventionally agreed or writer-explained contractions are of course fine • E. g. UN, UNHCR Adjectives: Avoid big, little, good, bad, a lot of Use major, minor, positive, negative, much/many; AND serious, critical, considerable, substantial, crucial, important, significant etc. The University of Sydney Page 12 1

Technical vocabulary • discipline-specific specialised/technical terms • e. g. phonology, ergativity, metafunction Semi-technical vocabulary • more likely to be known to people outside the field • includes verbs and nouns for • expressing relationships, e. g. identifying and defining, classifying, showing cause and effect – e. g. result, consequence, outcome • tracking concepts – e. g. process, factor, question, method • referring to sources – e. g. describe, show, suggest, analyse (Refer to Appendix 1. 1) The University of Sydney Page 13 1

Personal vs impersonal style We use personal style in writing to refer to – our actions • e. g. in experiments, observations, data collection, the act of writing, etc. – We then recorded the velocity of … – our ideas and argument – e. g. feeling, believing, concluding, arguing, etc. » I argue that …, I conclude by … The University of Sydney Page 14

Impersonal style: Grammatical strategies for avoiding personal style: Active voice: • They are currently excavating additional sites. Passive voice: • Additional sites are currently being excavated*. • *The researchers are backgrounded, and the research is foregrounded Using an impersonal passive: • It can be seen that … • It has been suggested that … • It has been found that … The University of Sydney Page 15 1

Impersonal style: Using the active voice • to identify the focus in your writing: • I wish to raise a number of issues related to … • This paper will raise a number of issues related to … • to make your evidence show a conclusion: • After discussing Richard’s case, we can see that retirement is a serious matter for older people. • Richard’s case shows that retirement is a serious matter for older people. • to focus on things as actors: • When we examine the portraits, we can observe that the frames influence the interpretation of the reader. • The frames of the portraits influence the interpretation of the reader. The University of Sydney Page 16 1

Examples of using the active voice to make sentences impersonal 1. From this evidence, we have seen that the male patients are more likely to suffer from stress. 2. For the purposes of this essay, we will examine two major costs, human resources and financial costs. 3. When we look at these figures, we can learn that nearly 60% of married women are in the workforce. 4. In the next section, I will present a number of arguments in favour of changes to the current design. The University of Sydney Page 17

Answers 1. From this evidence, we have seen that the male patients are more likely to suffer from stress. Or The evidence shows that the male patients … 2. For the purposes of this essay, we will examine two major costs, human resources and financial costs. 3. When we look at these figures, we can learn show that nearly 40% of married women are in the workforce. 4. In the next section, I will present a number of arguments in favour of changes to the current design. The University of Sydney Page 18

Answers 1. From this evidence, the male patients are more likely to suffer from stress. Or The evidence shows that the male patients … 2. This essay will examine two major costs, human resources and financial costs. 3. These figures show that nearly 40% of married women are in the workforce. 4. The next section will present a number of arguments in favour of changes to the current design. The University of Sydney Page 19

Making your writing more abstract How? By changing words from one word class to another • content verbs become nouns: – dissection • modal verbs become nouns: – can ability • nouns become adjectives: – anatomy anatomical • conjunctions become verbs or nouns – because cause/reason The University of Sydney Page 20 2

Analytical and abstract style: Information in Theme – Well-written academic texts are focussed on, e. g. – a line of argument – descriptions of procedures – Focus – commonly expressed in the Theme of each sentence – Theme – information presented before the main verb of the sentence – what the sentence is ‘about’ • e. g. The review summarises findings and identifies implications from three major categories of research investigating … • One aspect of helping students with disabilities become successful in integrated settings is the use of instructional adaptations … – can also include the writer’s judgement/attitude • Unfortunately, due to space limitations, it is not possible to include the full list of author names. The University of Sydney Page 21 2

Analytical and abstract style: Types of information as theme – Non-specific, e. g. – It can be argued that recent increases in smoking among teenagers are primarily due to. . . – There is another reason for recent increases in smoking among teenagers. (There sentences are often found in paragraph-initial position. ) – Specific: focus on – the source, e. g. Chomsky has long been associated with discussion of this ‘faculty’. He claimed(1979) that there is a ‘universal grammar’ … – the information itself, e. g. The claim that there is a ‘universal grammar’ that is a ‘genetically determined property of the human species’ (Chomsky, 1979) has been challenged by … – Abstract information tends to focus on issues/ concepts, e. g. the The University of Sydney Page 22 2

2 3 Choosing a Focus for Evidence The University of Sydney Page 23

2 4 Check your writing! Look at your own work and ask … 1. Is your focus varied or only on the author? 2. What sort of information is in the beginning of the sentences? 3. How have you organised your paragraph/s? The University of Sydney Page 24

Reporting verbs The functions of reporting verbs what the author does § survey § § § § investigate find show reveal explore support submit offer put forward review study analyse examine demonstrate explain The University of Sydney what the author 'says' § § § § state discuss argue claim suggest insist propose question note allege contend charge declare propose what the author thinks or feels § § § think believe infer conclude posit reason deduce gather understand suppose judge assume Page 25

2 6 Reporting verbs – Some verbs report what the – author did or found as a factual AL event. – Verbs which report what the author 'says' or the author's interpretations of his/her findings or the author's ideas/opinions are more varied in their meanings. – These verbs also reflect your attitude to what you have reported. We can put these verbs on a cline according to INTERPRETIVE whether they report the ideas in a NEUTRAL or INTERPRETIVE way. The University of Sydney NEUTR Page 26

2 7 Question … Where would you put these commonly used reporting verbs on the cline? NEUTRAL say, suggest, observe, emphasise, indicate, describe, conclude, support, focus on, consider, claim, point out, discuss, report, insist, INTERPRETIVE propose, question. The University of Sydney Page 27

2 8 Answer Say Observe Indicate Describe Point out Discuss Report Suggest Focus on Consider Emphasise Conclude Support Insist Propose Question Claim The University of Sydney NEUTRAL INTERPRETIVE Page 28

Using online resourcs – Use reversedictionary. org to find meanings: – Being everywhere – Make a problem worse – Happening at the same time The University of Sydney Page 29

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Usyd Library Website – Databases – e. g. Oxford Reference Online – Search Bar – Referencing – Subject Guides The University of Sydney Page 31

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