World Englishes Numa Markee UIUC NELTA Conference Kathmandu

World Englishes Numa Markee UIUC NELTA Conference Kathmandu, 19 February 2010

Overview of the talk (1) • A historical overview of the evolution of the notion of standard varieties of English • World Englishes (WE) • The geographical, ideological, and sociocultural contexts of WE

Overview of the talk (2) • Implications of WE for Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research • Implications of WE for English Language Teaching (ELT) • Implications of WE for Nepalese applied linguists and ELT teachers

Standard Varieties • The notion of World Englishes is rooted in the fact that, over several centuries, a number of different L 1 standard varieties have emerged: – British English (Received Pronunciation) – American English (General American) – Canadian English – Australian and New Zealand English – South African English

World Englishes • World Englishes (or New Englishes) are forms of L 2 English that have developed or are developing into standard varieties since World War II: – In former (mainly British) colonies • Indian, Nigerian, Singaporean, Philipino Englishes (ESL) – In countries which never experienced colonization but which have a need for English as the de facto lingua franca of science, technology, business, etc. • Nepal, Japan, Korea, China, Russia, European Union (EFL)

A summary (1) • Until the 19 th century, there were only two L 1 standard varieties of English: – British/American English • In the first half of the 20 th century, other L 1 standard varieties developed as ties with Britain gradually loosened – Australian, New Zealand, South African English

A summary (2) • In the second half of the 20 th century onwards, L 2, ESL varieties of English developed rather quickly as a result of independence from Britain and the emergence of the US as a political, economic and cultural super power – Indian, African Englishes • During approximately the same time period, L 2 EFL varieties of English began to develop as a result of general processes of development and globalization – Chinese, Euro Englishes • Kachru (1988) calls these sites of standard varieties the Inner Circle (L 1), the Outer Circle (ESL), and the Expanding Circle (EFL) , respectively

The geographical, ideological, and sociocultural contexts of WE (1) • The field of WE is concerned with describing the linguistic characteristics of new and emerging varieties of English in widely different geographical locations – Discourse/Pragmatics – Grammar – Lexis – Phonology – (Spelling)

The geographical, ideological, and sociocultural contexts of WE (2) • It is also concerned with the ideological dimensions of the spread of this language – Linguicism (= linguistic and cultural racism) – “Killer” English – Quality/Mutual intelligibility – The privileged position of the Native Speaker (NS) • NS: A monolingual construct? • See also the role of the NS in SLA research

The geographical, ideological, and sociocultural contexts of WE (3) • (Educational) Language planning issues – English as a tool of modernity, development, inter/intranational communication, globalization, cultural (in)authenticity, youth culture, etc – The status of English in multilingual and multiethnic communities and educational systems • Official language? • Medium of Instruction? At which level(s) of education?

The geographical, ideological, and sociocultural contexts of WE (4) • And it is also concerned with how English has become nativized (= adapted to new social, and cultural ecologies) – The creative ability of L 2 (ESL) varieties of English to express new national, cultural, and personal identities and concerns – The emergence of new L 2 literatures and forms of entertainment • Novels, short stories, Bollywood films

Implications of WE for Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research • The main problem concerning the potential interface between WE research and SLA research is that very little SLA research has been carried out in L 2 (ESL or EFL) contexts • WE is primarily a sociolinguistic discipline, while mainstream SLA is primarily a cognitive discipline • Empirical SLA research in WE contexts is desperately needed to enrich our knowledge of language learning processes and products

Implications of WE for English Language Teaching (ELT) (1) • The roles of NS and NNS teachers in WE contexts – NS teachers tend to have high prestige and credibility (at least, in EFL contexts) – NS teachers may (or may not) be trained in applied linguistics and/or in ELT – Even when they do have AL/ELT training, the language varieties, technologies, methodologies and textbooks NS teachers bring with them may (or may not) be locally appropriate – NS teachers tend to be expensive to hire and maintain

Implications of WE for English Language Teaching (ELT) (2) • NNS teachers tend to have lower prestige and credibility than NS teachers (at least, in EFL contexts) • NNS teachers’ personal communication skills, even in a local variety of English, may be limited, encouraging an excessive focus on teaching the formal aspects of grammar and vocabulary, and a de facto concentration on rote reading and (perhaps) writing skills

Implications of WE for English Language Teaching (ELT) (3) • On the other hand, NNS speakers are much more likely to have some training in ELT than NS teachers • NNS speakers understand local expectations of what constitutes “good” or “appropriate” ELT practice • NNS teachers − particularly those who are well trained and have good communication skills in English − are cheaper to hire and to maintain than NS teachers

Implications of WE for English Language Teaching (ELT) (4) • The selection of an appropriate L 2 variety and appropriate texts (both written and spoken) as sources of instructional input and language assessment takes on particular significance in educational language planning at all educational levels

Implications of WE for Nepalese applied linguists and ELT teachers (1) • In the complex linguistic, geographical, ideological, and sociocultural ecology that characterizes WE, Nepal is in perhaps a uniquely difficult position • Geographically, it is a small, under-developed country which is sandwiched between the world’s largest emerging economic super powers of the 21 st century, India and China, respectively

Implications of WE for Nepalese applied linguists and ELT teachers (2) • Linguistically, Nepal is an Expanding Circle country, as is China • On the other hand, India is the largest and most established country in the Outer Circle • With respect to standard variety selection: – Is there an identifiable Nepalese variety of English? – If so, should it therefore automatically become the target variety used in English instruction in Nepal? • Consider the costs of producing textbooks in this variety; might it not be cheaper to continue importing textbooks from India, thereby accepting Indian English as the de facto variety?

Implications of WE for Nepalese applied linguists and ELT teachers (3) • Nepal is in the process of developing a new constitution – Nepalese applied linguists and ELT teachers should take a leading role in framing the discussion of language issues that is bound to ensue – In particular, what (quasi) official role (if any) should English play in relation to indigenous Nepalese languages, and in particular sectors of the economy? • Education • Science • Business (e. g. , tourism)

Implications of WE for Nepalese applied linguists and ELT teachers (4) • Should Nepal explicitly formulate a national policy regarding the use of English as a medium of instruction at different levels of education, or just leave it to the market to make these decisions? • What steps should Nepal take to encourage and enable Nepalese citizens to learn English in an increasingly globalizing world? • What steps should Nepal take to maintain its linguistic and cultural heritage from the potential “killer” characteristics of English?

Thanks! Any Questions?