Work in the 21 st Century Chapter 12

Work in the 21 st Century Chapter 12 Leadership in Organizations A leader’s job is to motivate (use motivational theories) From traits –> Behaviors -> Contingency -> Traits 1

Module 12. 1: The Concept of Leadership • Conceptual Distinctions Leadership effectiveness vs. Leader emergence • Research indicates that emotional stability, extraversion, openness, & conscientiousness “+” correlated with leader emergence 2

Problem of Defining Leadership Outcomes • Leadership has been variously credited with many different achievements • Problem in choosing which outcome to examine & which time frame to consider • There is typically lag time between actions by a leader & outcomes of those actions 3

Figure 12. 1: Toxic Triangle of Destructive Leadership SOURCE: Padilla et al. (2007) 4

Leader vs. Manager or Supervisor • Leader – Individual in group given task of directing task-relevant group activities or, in absence of designated leader, carries primary responsibility for performing these functions 5

Leader vs. Manager or Supervisor (cont’d) • Attempts at leadership – Attempted leadership – Successful leadership – Effective leadership • Manager or supervisor deals with what is to be done • Leadership deals with how it is to be done 6

Blending of Managerial & Leadership Roles • Leadership previously seen as “icing on the cake” in managers • Modern approaches blend many managerial duties with expectations of what represents effective leadership • Borman & Brush’s taxonomy of managerial performance requirements – Connection b/w leadership & mgmt. very clear 7

Table 12. 1: Areas of Managerial Responsibility 8

Leader Development vs. Leadership Development • Leader development – Develops, maintains, & enhances individual leader attributes (style, personality) • Leadership development (contingency) – Concentrates on leader-follower development – Leadership as social exchange – Interpersonal competence 9

Motivation to Lead • Power motive • Exercise of control over others or environment is pleasing • Activity inhibition • Describes person who is not impulsive • Affiliation need • Need for approval or connections with others • Those with leadership aspirations tend to have high power motive + high activity inhibition + low affiliation needs 10

Motivation to Lead (cont’d) • Motives to lead – Affective-identity → Desire for control – Instrumental → Personal benefits – Social-normative → Duty to lead • Best motivation – (sense of obligation) • Bottom line: There are multiple motivations to lead besides the need for power & control 11

Table 12. 2: Motives to Lead 12

Module 12. 2: Traditional Theories of Leadership • “Great Man” theories (inherent traits) – Life of respected leader examined for clues leading to his/her greatness – Often focused on a galvanizing experience or admirable trait – Tend to be of little value from the perspective of I-O psychology 13

Trait Approach • Prevalent in 1920 s & 1930 s • Attempted to show that leaders possess certain characteristics that non-leaders do not • No consistent relationships between traits & leader effectiveness were found 14

Table 12. 3: Some Characteristics of Leaders that Have Been Studied 15

“Power” Approach • Examines types of power wielded by leaders (French & Raven) • Reward power • Coercive power • Legitimate power • Referent power • Expert power • Very practical in orientation 16

Behavioral Approach Ohio State University studies (Fleishman & Harris ‘ 62) • Behavioral approach • Focused on kinds of behavior engaged in by people in leadership roles • 2 major types of behavior • Consideration • Initiating structure – Represented a leap forward 17

Behavioral Approach University of Michigan studies (R. Likert, ’ 50 s) • Focused more on dynamics of how leaders & groups interacted • Task-oriented behavior – Similar to initiating structure • Relations-oriented behavior – Similar to consideration • Participative behavior • Represented another step forward in leadership research 18

Contingency Approach • Proposed to take into account the role of the situation in the exercise of leadership - think B =f (p*e) • Hersey & Blanchard’s situational theory – Proposed leadership depended in part on maturity of subordinate • Job maturity • Psychological maturity 19

Consequences of Participation: Vroom-Yetton Model • Decision rules regarding participation – Assumes that one of most important duties of leader is to make decisions – Suggests way to choose a decisionmaking strategy – Implication that group decision-making is not always appropriate 20

Module 12. 3: New Approaches to Leadership (Dansereau, Graen, Haga ‘ 75) • Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory – Leaders adopt different behaviors with individual subordinates – In-group members vs. out-group members – Recent revisions describe “life-cycle” of a leader-follower relationship C Squared Studios/Getty Images 21

Transformational Leadership (Burns) • Behavior of inspirational political leaders who transform followers by appealing to nobler motives (MLK Jr. & Gandhi) • 4 general strategies (know them!) – Inspirational motivation – Idealized influence – Intellectual stimulation – Individualized consideration 22

Transformational Leadership (Bass & Avolio) • Bass perceived transformational leadership as building upon transactional leadership in a hierarchy reflecting effectiveness – “Full-range” theory of leadership – FLRM (know them!) 23

Hierarchy of Transformational Leadership Figure 12. 2 Hierarchical Nature of Transformational Leadership Source: Based on Bass (1997). 24

The Charismatic Leader • Charisma – Personal attribute of a leader that hypnotizes followers and compels them to identify with and attempt to emulate the leader 25

Charismatic Leader • Followers are emotionally attached to leader, never question leader’s beliefs or actions, & see themselves as integral to accomplishment of leader’s goal • Acquire some power from situation • Charismatic style may work to keep followers weak Morley/Photo. Link/Getty Images 26

Charismatic Leadership Theory • Approach with many different versions of the notion that charisma is related to leadership; (1) in a crisis situation, followers perceive charismatic characteristics in an individual and accept that person as a leader; (2) certain leader behaviors (use of innovative strategies) contribute to a charismatic aura 27

Module 12. 4: Emerging Topics & Challenges in Leadership Research • Leadership in a changing workplace – Teams/groups – Telecommuting – Temporary workers – Fuzzy boundaries of jobs 28

Male & Female Leaders: Are They Different? • Considerable disagreement among researchers • Women tend to prefer democratic & participative styles; men favor autocratic styles • Men tend to be more assertive; women more extraverted • Women substantially more tender-minded Ryan Mc. Vay/Getty Images 29

Male & Female Leaders (cont’d) • Effect of male- or female-dominated industries on leadership styles – Women in male-dominated industries – Men in female-dominated industries • More research is necessary on gender & leadership 30

Personality & Leadership • One or more Big Five factors appear directly or indirectly in all leadership theories • Big 5 factors emphasize “bright side” of leadership: Effectiveness • Predictors for leader failure more likely to be found in measures of psychopathology 31

Personality & Leadership (cont’d) • Meta-analysis on relationship between personality & leader effectiveness in 3 settings – Characteristics positively associated with leader effectiveness in 3 different environments: Industry Government/Military Student Emotional stability Extraversion Openness to experience Conscientiousness Agreeableness 32

Cross-Cultural Leadership Studies • Global leadership & organizational behavior effectiveness (GLOBE) – (R. House et al. ‘ 91) – Large-scale cross-cultural study of leadership by 170 social scientists & management researchers in over 60 countries 33

Table 12. 4: Universal and Culture. Specific Aspects of Leadership 34

Leadership in a Diverse Environment • Workplace is becoming less white, less native born, less male, & less young – Implications for leader behavior • Appears that transformational & charismatic leadership are universally valued – Lead to positive performance results & positive attitude reactions 35