Wilhelm Wundt 1832 1920 Wundts Methodology Psychology falls

Wilhelm Wundt 1832 - 1920

Wundt’s Methodology Psychology falls between the physical & social sciences Experimental and research methods used in the physical sciences were to be applied to psychological questions.

Wundt’s Methodology Psychology falls between the physical & social sciences Experimental and research methods used in the physical sciences were to be applied to psychological questions.

Wundt’s Psychology Three main subdivisions: – One branch would be an inductive experimental science – The second would study reflections of higher mental processes, such as language, myths, aesthetics, religion & social customs via literature & naturalistic observation – The third would integrate the social & physical sciences into a scientific metaphysics – coherent theory of the universe.

The First Psychology Lab (1879) • Wundt was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the University of Leipzig which assigned him a room to store his equipment, which became his lab. • He used a variety of equipment in his teaching demonstrations and research: • In 1879 he began experiments that were not part of his teaching – he marks this as the beginning of his lab. .

Wundt’s Psychology • Psychology’s goal is to study the psychological processes by which we experience the world. • Immediate experience – the conscious processes we have when stimuli are presented: – The greenness of green paper, the pitch of a tone. • Mediate experience – the physical measurements using instruments of phenomena in the world.

Wundt’s Psychology – Use of a spectrometer to measure greenness of paper. – Mediate is physics (objective), Immediate is psychology (subjective – we are immersed in our own consciousness)

Introspection • Introspection is experimental selfobservation. • Wundt did not mean “armchair speculation” by this term or “contemplative meditation. ” • Wundt’s introspection included measuring reaction times & word associations and a rigidly controlled experimental procedure for describing sensations.

Rules for Introspection • The observer had to be in a state of “strained attention”. • Observations were repeated multiple times. • Experimental conditions were varied systematically. • Two elements were described: sensations & feelings.

Wundt’s Psychology Is Not Titchener’s Structuralism embraced the things Wundt’s psychology did not. Tictcher was an elementist interested primarily in the structure of mind).

Edward Titchener 1867 -1927 A student of Wilhelm Wundt, Titchener believed that psychology should emphasize the study of experience from the point of view of the experiencing individual. All elements must exist in the consciousness. Habit, action, instinct were largely ignored. Titchener characterized mental processes as having quality, intensity, duration, clearness, and extensity. He became the head of the first psychological lab in America at Cornell University in 1892.

William James: Instincts Instinct: - “the faculty of acting in such a way as to produce certain ends, without foresight of the end, or without previous education in the performance. ” i. e, climbing, emulation, rivalry, pugnacity, anger, resentment, hunting, jealousy Principles of Psychology, 1890 1842 -1910

William James: Instincts James listed 37 instincts, including acquisitiveness, anger, clasping, cleanliness, constructiveness, crying, curiosity, emulation, fear of dark places, fear of noise, fear of strange animals, fear of strange men, hunting, imitation, jealousy, love, modesty, parental love, play, pugnacity, resentment, secretiveness, shame, shyness, smiling, sociability, sympathy, and walking. 1842 -1910 But although these could explain much, he also realized that these instincts could be overridden by experience and by each other, since many of the instincts were actually in conflict with each other. Principles of Psychology, 1890

Human Beings are driven by Unconscious Motivations

Id Superego [Nature] [Nurture] Ego [Self] Sigmund Freud 1856 - 1939

Psychoanalytic Theory of Development Five Stages of Psychosexual Development 1. Oral (0 to 18 mos. ) 2. Anal (18 mos to 3 yrs) 3. Phallic (3 yrs to 6 yrs) 4. Latency (6 yrs to 11 yrs) 5. Genital (11 yrs to adulthood) Sigmund Freud 1856 -1939

Psychosocial Theory of Development • • • Trust vs Mistrust (0 -18 mos) Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (18 mos-3 yrs) Initiative vs Guilt (3 -6 yrs) Industry vs Inferiority (6 -12 yrs) Identity vs Role confusion (12 -18 yrs) • • • Intimacy vs Isolation (19 -40 yrs) Generativity vs Stagnation (4065 yrs) Integrity vs Despair (65 yrs-death) Erikson 1902 - 1994

Psychosocial Theory of Development Erikson sought to study how the ego, or consciousness, operates creatively in sane, well-ordered individuals. Erikson set forth a theory that all societies develop institutions to accommodate personality development but that the solutions to similar problems differ between different societies. Erikson 1902 - 1994

James Marcia and Identity Statuses James Marcia furthered work on Erikson’s theory by using interviews and surveys of male college students. He differed from Erikson in that he proposed identity statuses rather than stages. Statuses don’t necessarily occur in a linear fashion, but can change in response to environmental crises (Marcia 1966). Identity statuses may occur in many domains such as school, relationships, and values.

James Marcia and Identity Statuses Status 1 - Identity Diffusion: Identity Diffusion is a low commitment to a particular identity. According to Marcia's theory, the Identity Diffusion status may occur anytime between the ages of 12 to 18 and even beyond. An adolescent who experiences Identity Diffusion finds him or herself unable to commit to a particular identity. During this stage, an adolescent may not think about a particular identity until they experience a crisis or are otherwise compelled to adopt an identity (1966). During this identity status, there is low commitment to an identity as well as low exploration. Example: Jason is a high school senior who is graduating in the following semester. He has not thought about what he wants to do after graduation and has not explored college or job prospects. In the domain of occupation, his identity is diffused. He has not explored any options or made commitments to a particular goal.

James Marcia and Identity Statuses Status 2 - Identity Foreclosure: A commitment to an identity without a crisis. Foreclosure involves committing to an identity prematurely without exploration or choice. This occurs when parents hand down their traditions and commitments and the adolescent does not make a conscious choice (1966). The negative consequences are that the adolescent may later feel resentment about not being allowed to choose for herself or himself. This stage involves being highly committed to an identity without any exploration. Example: Jennifer is passionate about music , but she is the daughter of two physicians and her parents expect her to follow in their footsteps. Jennifer enters a pre-med college program and abandons her musical interests.

James Marcia and Identity Statuses Status 3 - Identity Moratorium: In the midst of a crisis, searching for an identity to adopt. Marcia describes identity moratorium as a stage of active exploration and a low commitment to a particular identity (1966). This is an interesting, exciting, and potentially dangerous stage for an adolescent since they are able to try many things as they seek to discover their identities. This stage occurs at any point during early to late adolescence and is one of the most typical identity statuses for adolescents. During this particular status, adolescents may come into conflict with parents and other authority figures as they explore their identity. Adolescents need to be free to safely explore their identities but also need guidance and support to proceed safely through this status. Example: Samantha was raised a Catholic, but has begun to read about other religions in order to discover her own religious identity. Last year, she started attending a Buddhist temple and has also attended a Jewish synagogue. She is unsure about which religion, if any, she wants to follow.

James Marcia and Identity Statuses Status 4 - Identity Achievement Identity is said to be achieved when the adolescent has undergone a crisis (exploration) and now made a commitment to a particular identity. Marcia conceptualized the achieved status as the completion of the moratorium status. This means that the individual has explored aspects of a particular identity before adopting it. During the achieved status, the individual has a high degree of commitment and an equally high degree of exploration with regard to that identity. Example: Richard read a book about vegan diets and decided to consult a nutritionist about devising a diet plan for himself. He researched vegan diets and found the research evidence personally compelling enough to become vegan. He has been a vegan for three years and is secure in his identity

Human Beings are Learning Machines

“Behaviorism” John B. Watson “Psychology, as the behaviorist views it, is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science which needs introspection as little as do the sciences of chemistry and physics. ” 1878 - 1958 “There are for us no instincts – we no longer need the term in psychology. Everything we have been in the habit of calling an “instinct” today is a result largely of training – belonging to man’s learned behavior. ” “[Consciousness] has never been seen, touched, smelled, tasted or moved. It is plain assumption just as unprovable as the old concept of the soul. ”

“Behaviorism” John B. Watson “Give me a dozen healthy infants, wellformed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant -chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. ” (1930) 1878 - 1958

“Behaviorism” - John B. Watson Influence of Pavlov 1849 - 1936 “The rule, or measuring rod, which the behaviorist puts in front of him always is: Can I describe this bit of behavior I see in terms of ‘stimulus and response’? ” John B. Watson, Behaviorism, 1924

“Black - Boxing the Brain” Inputs STIMULUS Reward Punishment Outputs RESPONSE

The Human Infant Studies Watson’s interest was in creating and refining an objective methodology for deriving a behavioral theory of emotional response. “I am next door to the obstetrical ward here and I get about forty babies a month. These babies are sent over to the laboratory on demand we can make the observations right here. ” The focus of Watson’s research was to gain “experimental control over the whole range of emotional reactions. ” His 1916 experiments, he claimed, uncovered the basic emotional reactions fundamental to the nature of man—fear, rage, and love.

The Human Infant Studies Watson’s work with infants began as early as 1916. Watson testing the tonic grasp instinct. “Babies are not hothouse plants and can be subjected to laboratory experiments without the slightest harm. ”

The Human Infant Studies Watson elicited fear by dropping the infant, by loud sounds, or by startling it when asleep. Rage was elicited by hindering movements. Love was produced by “stroking or manipulation of some erogenous zone. ” Habits or conditioned responses were found to be connected with these basic emotional responses at a very early stage, and these habits, he argued, should be controlled.

The “Little Albert” Studies, 1920 During the winter of 1919 -1920, with his graduate assistant Rosalie Rayner, he began a series of experiments with a ninemonth old infant, Albert B. Watson attempted to prove that the responses of fear, rage, and love could be artificially induced in the subject. Little Albert

Watson as Popularizer of Behaviorism

Watson as Popularizer of Behaviorism “…all we have to start with in building a human being is a lively squirming bit of flesh, capable of making a few simple responses such as movements of the hands and arms and fingers and toes, crying and smiling, making certain sounds with its throat. I said there that parents take this raw material and begin to fashion it in ways to suit themselves. This means that parents, whether they know it or not, start intensive training of the child at birth. ” 1878 -1958 John B. Watson, Psychological Care of Infant and Child (1928)

Watson as Popularizer of Behaviorism “Wives haven’t enough to do today. Scientific mass production has made their tasks so easy that they are over-burdened with time. ” “They utilize this time in destroying the happiness of their children. ” “Never hug and kiss them, never let them sit on your lap. If you must, kiss them once on the forehead when they say good night. Shake hands with them in the morning…” 1878 -1958 He dedicated his widely read Psychological Care of the Infant and Child to the “first mother who brings up a happy child. ”

“Behaviorism” - John B. Watson 1878 -1958 “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. ” John B. Watson, Behaviorism, 1924

Bell and Pad Method of Toilet Training

Instrumental or Operant Conditioning Thorndike's Law of Effect: Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened; & Edward L. Thorndike 1874 - 1949 Responses that are followed by discomfort are weakened

Edward L. Thorndike - Puzzle Box

B. F. Skinner 1904 - 1990 S rewards punishments R

B. F. Skinner and Behavior Modification B. F. “Fred” Skinner

B. F. Skinner and Behavior Modification B. F. “Fred” Skinner

Programmed Learning Machine

B. F. Skinner and Behavior Modification B. F. “Fred” Skinner Alexandra Rutherford York University

Psychology Today April 1970

Junty Herald Mount Holly, New Jersey August 21, 1969

1971 4 Oscar Nominations: Best Director Best Picture Best Screenplay Best Film Editing Gross: $25, 589, 355

April 1974

The Sunday News, Detroit June 30, 1974

The Ann Arbor News August 28, 1974

Social Learning Theory According to Bandura, individuals have certain capabilities that define what it is to be human. These capabilities provide human beings with the cognitive means by which they are influential in determining their own destiny. Albert Bandura (1925 -present)

Social Cognitive Theory Primary among these human capabilities are the ability to: Albert Bandura (1925 -present) Symbolize Plan alternative strategies (forethought) Learn through vicarious experience BOBO DOLL Self-regulate Self-reflect

Cognitive Theory of Development Sensorimotor: (birth to about age 2) During this stage, the child learns about himself and his environment through motor and reflex actions. Thought derives from sensation and movement. Jean Piaget 1896 -1980 Preoperational: (begins about the time the child starts to talk to about age 7) Applying his new knowledge of language, the child begins to use symbols to represent objects. Early in this stage he also personifies objects. He is now better able to think about things and events that aren't immediately present.

Cognitive Theory of Development Concrete Operations: (about first grade to early adolescence) During this stage, accommodation increases. The child develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgments about concrete or observable phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically to understand. In teaching this child, giving him the opportunity to ask questions and to explain things back to you allows him to mentally manipulate information. Jean Piaget 1896 -1980 Formal Operations: (adolescence) This stage brings cognition to its final form. This person no longer requires concrete objects to make rational judgments. At this point, he is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning.

Cognitive Theory of Development STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Jean Piaget 1896 -1980

Emergent Theories Sociocultural Lev Vygotsky 1896 -1934 Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of ideas. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. ”

Emergent Theories Sociocultural Mental abilities and processes are viewed in terms of the historical sequence of events that produced them. Lev Vygotsky 1896 -1934 Piaget believed that all children’s cognitive processes follow a very similar pattern of stages. Vygotsky saw intellectual abilities as being much more specific to the culture in which the child was reared.

Emergent Theories Sociocultural Culture makes two sorts of contributions to the child’s intellectual development. First, children acquire much of their knowledge from it. Lev Vygotsky 1896 -1934 Second, children acquire the processes or means of their thinking (tools of intellectual adaptation) from the surrounding culture. Therefore, culture provides children with the tools to think, with what to think, and with how to think.

Urie Bronfenbrenner