Wiebe Bijker Of Bicycles Bakelites and Bulbs Toward
Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 1
Introduction • Understanding the place of technology in our lives and in our society. • Examples from three technological advances: • The safety bicycle • Bakelite plastic • Fluorescent bulbs • Technology and society are human constructs Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 2
Bijker (beé-ker) • Dutch engineering student in the 1970 s • Drawn to Science Technology Society movement (STS) • Risks of nuclear energy • Environmental degradation • Followed Social Construction of Technology apprach (SCOT) Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 3
Classification, bad • Tried to dissolve STS boundaries – Seamless web • Abhorred linear thinking Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 4
A vague diagram Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 5
Summary • Technological inventions are created within society; cannot be viewed distinctly • Gives three concrete stories and ties them in to their societal frameworks • Keywords: • • Relevant Social Group Interpretive Flexibility: Closure/Stabilization Technological Frame Power Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 6
Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 7
Part 1: Of Bicycles… • Early 19 th century, Baron von Drais’ draisenne Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 8
Part 1: Of Bicycles… • Early 19 th century, Baron von Drais’ draisienne Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 9
Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 10
Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 11
Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 12
Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 13
Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 14
Part 1: Of Bicycles… • Relevant user group – are the social groups centered around the technology, in this case, the Ordinary bicycle. – Users: Young men of means and nerve – Non-users: Everybody else – Manufacturers: industrialized machine industries de-stabilized by Franco-German war Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 15
Part 1: Of Bicycles… • Interpretive flexibility – the definition of the artifact according to the relevant user group – For young men of means and nerve – it is a working technology, slightly dangerous, but that was, partly, the point. – For everybody else – it is a non-working technology. It was unsafe. – For manufacturers – how do you develop it for wider use? Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 16
Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 17
Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 18
Part 1: Of Bicycles… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 19
“The Fourth Kingdom” The Social Construction of Bakelite Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 20
Baekeland Lone inventor? Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 21
Two New Concepts • Technological Frame • Degree of Inclusion But first, some background to the story of Bakelite… Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 22
What is Bakelite? • Trademark for a molding material patented by Baekeland in 1907 • Formed in condensation reaction that occurs when phenol and formaldehyde are combined • Insoluble, infusible, and unaffected by other chemicals • First truly synthetic plastic • Moldable but hardens Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 23
Precursors to Bakelite and Relevant Social Groups • Old “Plastics” – Resin, horn, tortoiseshells, ivory, etc. (luxury market) • New Plastics Made from Natural Materials – Rubber – useful but ugly – Celluloid – useful but flammable • Search for Synthetic Plastics – Concern about scarcity of natural resources – Precursors created demand for consumer products (emergence of new social group) – Phenol-formaldehyde experiments Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 24
Discovery of Bakelite • • Turn-of-the-Century Phenol-formaldehyde research in disarray Baekeland tries to find patterns in chaos Applies for patent for product he calls Bakelite: – – Product A: Liquid Product B: Elastic Product C: Hard yet gummy Product D: Hard and insoluble • Laboratory notes show he was interested in commercial applications Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 25
“Technological Frame” • Each relevant social group has own Technological Frame • Builds when relevant social groups interact around an artifact • Provides the goals, ideas and tools needed for action (solving problems) • Outcome is constrained by the social group, but outcome is not predetermined. • Also applies to non-technical groups such as consumers, managers, politicians, etc. Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 26
“Degree of Inclusion” • As actors can be members of more than one relevant social group, they can also be influenced by more than one technological frame • “Degree of inclusion” in a technological frame depends on extent to which an actor’s interactions are structured by that frame • Bijker: Innovation often comes from inclusion in more than one technological frame Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 27
Baekeland’s Inclusion in Technological Frames • Photochemist – Experience as photochemist (inventor of photographic paper) led him to attempt to map all possible variables of the phenol-formaldehyde reaction • Electrochemist – Interested in producing raw materials for industry (not consumer products) • Businessman – Interested in whether processes can be scaled up Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 28
Museums Early Contacts with Industry Consumers Industrial Designers The Social Construction of Bakelite World War I Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski Patent Litigation Collaboration with Industry 29
The social construction of fluorescent lighting The majesty of daylight Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 30
Overview • Lightbulbs invented in 1880 by Edison • This chapter focuses on 1938 -1940 s • Interplay between INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT & CONSUMERS • Engineers had devised fluorescent lighting long before the socially constructed final product appeared Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 31
Key players • 1890 s • MAZDA LIGHTING – Comprised GE and Westinghouse • • UTILITIES FIXTURE MANUFACTURERS PUBLIC GOVERNMENT Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 32
Consolidation • 1901 • GE, Westinghouse, Others • Others consolidate into National Electric Lamp Company. • GE provided capital by purchasing 75% of stock • GE owns 97% of U. S. electric lighting market Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 33
GENERAL ELECTRIC: Antitrust/Mergers/Cross-licensing Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 34
Utility companies • Private companies, collective organizaton • Organized as licensees of Mazda – Dependencies – “Understandings” • Utilities promoted Mazda lamps • Mazda promoted higher consumption Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 35
Fixture companies • No electric co. made accessories • RLM Standards Institute – Established industry standards – Favored Mazda • (who happened to collaborate in the standardization) Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 36
1930 s • Despite Great Depression—belief in technology • Technology was the buzzword – Object, process, knowledge, symbol • Electricity—Symbol! – Sense of wonder Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 37
World’s Fair 1939 • http: //xroads. virginia. edu/~1930 s/DISPL AY/39 wf/front. htm • Utopian • Introduced new technologies, including fluorescent lighting—an opportunity! Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 38
From tint to daylight • Originally for tint lighting—specialty • High-efficiency daylight fluorescent • “ 3 to 200 times as much light for the same wattage” • “Amazing efficiency” • “Most economical” • “Indoor daylight at last. ” Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 39
Uh-oh: Relevant Social Groups • Utilities feared lost revenues – Tried to emphasize the “tinted” aspect • Even Mazda was concerned – How long would this bulb last? • Independents – Hygrade-Sylvania • Public • Fixture Makers Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 40
Nela Park Conference • • April 24 -25, 1939 in Cleveland “Fluorescent Council of War” Create High-Intensity Daylight Lamp Nix High-Efficiency Lamp Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 41
GE vs. the Govt. • GE’s power continues through WWII • 2 lawsuits involving GE were dismissed because they “interfered with the war effort” • Military was using fluorescent bulbs Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 42
POWER • Transitive capacity to harness the agency of others to comply with one’s ends. • Is exercised, not possessed • Previously— – Economists would talk of technology without mentioning social power – Sociologist would not discuss technological power. Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 43
Semiotic power • Reaching closure, where interpretive flexibility is reduced, is the first step of semiotic power. • Which means: – More people in a relevant social group – New relevant social groups – Elaborating the meaning of artifacts Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 44
Constraints & Enablers • Stabilization results in fixity of meaning • Fixity of meaning represents power. – Shapes technological frames which specify actions of relevant social group members • Constrain actions (no high-efficiency bulbs) • Enable actions: routines, patents • Removes controversy from history – GE ads for high-intensity Wiebe Bijker: Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs. Rene Aranzamendez, Ellen Bahr, Paul Debraski 45
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