Whats the Internet nuts and bolts view q
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view q millions of connected PC computing devices: hosts = end systems v run network apps server wireless laptop cellular handheld Mobile network Global ISP Home network Regional ISP q communication links fiber, copper, radio, satellite v transmission rate (bandwidth) q routers: access points wired links router v v Institutional network forward packets (chunks of data) Introduction 1 -1
What’s a protocol? Network protocols: q All communication in Internet governed by protocols q Generic protocol: v v specific messages sent specific actions taken when messages are received, or other events (e. g. , timer expiration, exception detection) protocols define format, order of messages sent and received among network entities, and actions taken on message transmission, receipt q Protocol Representation: v Finite State Machines v Protocol Specification, via Standards Introduction 1 -2
Internet structure: network of networks v v roughly hierarchical at center: small # of well-connected large networks § “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e. g. , Verizon, Sprint, AT&T, Qwest, Level 3), national & international coverage § large content distributors (Google, Akamai, Microsoft) § treat each other as equals (no charges) IXP Tier-1 ISPs & Content Distributors, interconnect (peer) privately … or at Internet Exchange Points IXPs Large Content Distributor (e. g. , Akamai) IXP Tier 1 ISP Large Content Distributor (e. g. , Google) Tier 1 ISP Introduction 1 -3
Internet structure: network of networks v a packet passes through many networks from source host to destination host IXP Large Content Distributor (e. g. , Akamai) Tier 2 ISP IXP Tier 1 ISP Tier 2 ISP Large Content Distributor (e. g. , Google) Tier 1 ISP Tier 2 ISP Introduction 1 -4
Internet structure: network of networks q a packet passes through many networks down and up the hierarchy! local ISP Tier 3 ISP Tier-2 ISP local ISP Tier-2 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP local ISP Introduction 1 -5
Internet Hierarchy - hierarchy based on routing (more later) Introduction 1 -6
Hierarchical Architecture (+s, -s) q Advantages v Isolates and scopes internal dynamics: dampens oscillations, providing stability to the overall network v Supports scalability: aggregation/summary per domain for smaller, more efficient routing tables v Allows for flexibility: domains deploy different protocols, policies … q Disadvantages v Overhead of establishing and maintaining the hierarchy (esp. for mobile, dynamic nets) v Sub-optimality of routing … Introduction 1 -7
Protocol “Layers” Networks are complex! q many “pieces”: v hosts v routers v links of various media v applications v protocols v hardware, software Question: Is there any hope of organizing structure of network? Or at least our discussion of networks? Introduction 1 -8
Why layering? Dealing with complex systems: q explicit structure allows identification, relationship of complex system’s pieces v layered reference model for discussion q modularization eases maintenance, updating of system v change of implementation of layer’s service transparent to rest of system v change in one layer doesn’t affect rest of system (is this true? !) q Can layering be considered harmful? Introduction 1 -9
Internet protocol stack q application: supporting network applications v FTP, SMTP, HTTP q transport: process-process data transfer v TCP, UDP q network: routing of datagrams from source to destination v IP, routing protocols q link: data transfer between application transport network link physical neighboring network elements v PPP, Ethernet q physical: bits “on the wire” Introduction 1 -10
ISO/OSI reference model q presentation: allow applications to interpret meaning of data, e. g. , encryption, compression, machinespecific conventions q session: synchronization, checkpointing, recovery of data exchange q Internet stack “missing” these layers! v these services, if needed, must be implemented in application v needed? q Other protocol stacks? ATM, … application presentation session transport network link physical Introduction 1 -11
Encapsulation source message segment Ht M datagram Hn Ht M frame Hl Hn Ht M M application transport network link physical switch destination M Ht M Hn Ht Hl Hn Ht M M application transport network link physical Hn Ht Hl Hn Ht M M network link physical Hn Ht M router Introduction 1 -12
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Layering & protocol stacks: (the protocol hour glass – thin waste) Introduction 1 -17
The Network Core q mesh of interconnected routers q the fundamental question: how is data transferred through net? v circuit switching: dedicated circuit per call: telephone net v packet-switching: data sent thru net in discrete “chunks” Introduction 1 -18
Network Core: Circuit Switching End-to-end resources reserved for “call” q link bandwidth, switch capacity q dedicated resources: no sharing q circuit-like (guaranteed) performance q call setup required q re-establish call upon failure Introduction 1 -19
Network Core: Circuit Switching network resources (e. g. , bandwidth) divided into “pieces” q pieces allocated to calls q resource piece idle if not used by owning call (no sharing) q MULTIPLEXING: dividing link bandwidth into “pieces” v frequency division v time division q Multiplexing is so fundamental and influences many aspects of the technology, including congestion, buffering, delays, routing, … Introduction 1 -20
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM Example: FDM 4 users frequency time TDM frequency time Introduction 1 -21
Internet Design Goals/Principles q Scalability & economic access: v v Resource sharing, reduce reservations, allow for higher utilization Use of packet switching (statistical multiplexing) instead of circuit switching q Robustness: v v Re-routing around failures Stateless connections, dynamic routing q Reliablility: v Timed retransmission, based on acks, seq. #s q Evolvable: v Minimize complexity in the network and push functionality to the edges (end-to-end principles) * to revisit during history discussion Introduction 1 -22
Network Core: Packet Switching each end-end data stream divided into packets q user A, B packets share network resources q each packet uses full link bandwidth q resources used as needed Bandwidth division into “pieces” Dedicated allocation Resource reservation resource contention: q aggregate resource demand can exceed amount available q congestion: packets queue, wait for link use q store and forward: packets move one hop at a time v Node receives complete packet before forwarding Introduction 1 -23
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing 100 Mb/s Ethernet A B statistical multiplexing C 1. 5 Mb/s queue of packets waiting for output link D E Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern, bandwidth shared on demand statistical multiplexing. TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame. Introduction 1 -24
Packet-switching: store-and-forward L R q takes L/R seconds to R transmit (push out) packet of L bits on to link at R bps q store and forward: entire packet must arrive at router before it can be transmitted on next link q delay = 3 L/R (assuming zero propagation delay) R Example: q L = 7. 5 Mbits q R = 1. 5 Mbps q transmission delay = 15 sec more on delay shortly … Introduction 1 -25
Packet switching versus circuit switching Packet switching allows more users to use network! q 1 Mb/s link q each user: v 100 kb/s when “active” v active 10% of time q circuit-switching: v 10 users q packet switching: v with 35 users, probability > 10 active at same time is less than. 0004 N users 1 Mbps link Q: how did we get value 0. 0004? Use binomial distribution … Introduction 1 -26
Packet switching versus circuit switching Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner? ” q great for bursty data resource sharing (scalable!) v simpler, no call setup, more robust (re-routing) q excessive congestion: packet delay and loss v Without admission control: protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control q Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior? v bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps v still an unsolved problem (chapter 7), virtual circuit v Introduction 1 -27
How do loss and delay occur? packets queue in router buffers q packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity q packets queue, wait for turn packet being transmitted (delay) A B packets queueing (delay) free (available) buffers: arriving packets dropped (loss) if no free buffers Introduction 1 -28
Four sources of packet delay q 1. nodal processing: v check bit errors v determine output link q 2. queueing v time waiting at output link for transmission v depends on congestion level of router transmission A propagation B nodal processing queueing Introduction 1 -29
Delay in packet-switched networks 3. Transmission delay: q R=link bandwidth (bps) q L=packet length (bits) q time to send bits into link = L/R transmission A 4. Propagation delay: q d = length of physical link q s = propagation speed in medium (~2 x 108 m/sec) q propagation delay = d/s Note: s and R are very different quantities! propagation B nodal processing queueing Introduction 1 -30
Nodal delay q dproc = processing delay v typically a few microsecs or less q dqueue = queuing delay v depends on congestion q dtrans = transmission delay v = L/R, significant for low-speed links q dprop = propagation delay v a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs Introduction 1 -31
v v v R: link bandwidth (bps) L: packet length (bits) a: average packet arrival rate average queueing delay Queueing delay (revisited) traffic intensity = La/R v v v La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be serviced, average delay infinite! La/R ~ 0 La/R -> 1 Introduction 1 -32
Packet loss q queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity q packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost) q lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end system, or not at all buffer (waiting area) A B packet being transmitted packet arriving to full buffer is lost Introduction 1 -33
Throughput q throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits transferred between sender/receiver instantaneous: rate at given point in time v average: rate over long(er) period of time v link capacity that can carry server, with server sends bits pipe Rs bits/sec fluid at rate file of F bits (fluid) into pipe Rs bits/sec) to send to client link that capacity pipe can carry Rfluid c bits/sec at rate Rc bits/sec) Introduction 1 -34
Throughput (more) q Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput? Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec q Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput? Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec bottleneck link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput Introduction 1 -35
Network Security v field of network security: § how bad guys can attack computer networks § how we can defend networks against attacks § how to design architectures that are immune to attacks v Internet not originally designed with (much) security in mind § original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users attached to a transparent network” § Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up” § security considerations in all layers! Introduction 1 -36
Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet Trojan horse v hidden part of some otherwise useful software v today often in Web page (Active-X, plugin) virus v infection by receiving object (e. g. , e-mail attachment), actively executing v self-replicating: propagate itself to other hosts, users worm: v infection by passively receiving object that gets itself executed v self- replicating: propagates to other hosts, users Sapphire Worm: aggregate scans/sec in first 5 minutes of outbreak (CAIDA, UWisc data) Introduction 1 -37
Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure Denial of Service (Do. S): attackers make resources (server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic 1. select target 2. break into hosts around the network (see botnet) 3. send packets to target from compromised hosts target Introduction 1 -38
The bad guys can sniff packets Packet sniffing: broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless) v promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets (e. g. , including passwords!) passing by v C A src: B dest: A v payload B Wireshark software used for end-of-chapter labs is a (free) packet-sniffer Introduction 1 -39
The bad guys can use false source addresses IP spoofing: send packet with false source address C A src: B dest: A payload B Introduction 1 -40
The bad guys can record and playback record-and-playback: sniff sensitive info (e. g. , password), and use later v password holder is that user from system point of view A C src: B dest: A user: B; password: foo B … lots more on security (throughout, Chapter 8) Introduction 1 -41
Internet History 1972 -1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets q 1970: ALOHAnet satellite q q q network in Hawaii 1974: Cerf and Kahn architecture for interconnecting networks 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC ate 70’s: proprietary architectures: DECnet, SNA, XNA late 70’s: switching fixed length packets (ATM precursor) 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking principles: v minimalism, autonomy - no internal changes required to interconnect networks v best effort service model v stateless routers v decentralized control define today’s Internet architecture Introduction 1 -42
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