What is the difference between machine code and

• What is the difference between machine code and C? • Why use C? • How do execution of C and Matlab programs differ? • What are three methods of expressing a program algorithm? • Related Chapters: ABC Chapters 0 & 11. 3 10 -2

Auxiliary Storage Output Devices System Unit 0 - 3 instr 1 4 -7 instr 2. . . 100 -107 101 108 -109 -75 110 -121 label Memory Addresses Input Devices Main Memory(RAM) Control Unit (CU) Arithmetic -Logic Unit (ALU) CPU

Main (Internal) Memory: • All data and instructions are stored in main memory as a sequence of 0’s and 1’s called Bits (Binary Digits) • Byte (smallest addressable element of memory) Storage size for one character of information (ASCII-8 8 bits). Every (single) address refers to a byte in memory. • 210 bytes is defined as 1 kilo-byte (1 KB) 220 bytes is defined as 1 mega-byte (1 MB) 230 bytes is defined as 1 giga-byte (1 GB) 10 -4

Central Processing Unit (CPU): • Transfers information into, out of, and between memory locations. • Executes instructions stored in memory. • Set of instructions for a CPU is known as a machine language. • Each CPU (Intel Core i 7, IBM Power. PC, . . . ) has its own specific machine language. 10 -5

Instruction Cycle Main Memory 1 Control Unit Fetch 2 Decode Execution Cycle CPU RAM 4 Store 3 Execute Arithmetic/Logic Unit Includes Cache (very fast memory)

Classified as § Low Level • Machine Language (binary-based code; machine dependent) • Assembly Language (mnemonic form of machine language) 10 -7

§ High Level • Closer to natural languages. • Generally, machine independent • Usually, several machine instructions are combined into one high-level instruction. • Examples: FORTRAN COBOL BASIC Python Ada PL/I C GPSS C++ Java Lisp Matlab 10 -8

To illustrate differences in syntax for language levels, consider how a computer could be instructed to subtract two numbers stored in memory address locations 64 and 2048 and put the result in location 2048: Variable Names increment 64 value 2048 Memory Addresses 10 -9

Variable Names increment value • Machine Language: 64 Memory Addresses 2048 011111000000001000000 (6 -bit Op. Code, 14 -bit address fields with values 64 and 2048) 10 -10

Variable Names increment value 64 2048 Memory Addresses • Assembly Language: S increment, value • C Language: value = value - increment; 10 -11

Programs written in high-level languages must be converted to machine language. Two approaches: (1) Compilation (see p. 28 FER Figure 2. 4) Used with C, C++, Fortran, . . . (2) Interpretation Used with Matlab, Visual Basic, . . . 10 -12

Step 1) Use editor to create a “source” file. We will name source files with a suffix “. c” Step 2) Run the gcc compiler on the source file to create an executable or object file with the default name a. out. For CS 101 we will only create executable files. Step 3) Check to see if gcc caught any syntax errors , if so go back to step 1) Step 4) Run the program by typing >. /a. out at the Unix prompt

Computer programming is the art/science of transforming a “real world” problem into a finite sequence of instructions(statements) in a computer language. The method stated in the following slide will be used throughout the rest of the semester. Follow this method in your Labs and for any Machine Problem. 10 -14

1. Requirements Specification (Problem Definition) 2. Analysis---Refine, Generalize, Decompose the problem definition (i. e. , identify sub-problems, I/O, etc. ) 3. Design---Develop Algorithm (processing steps to solve problem) Use one of the following: Natural-Language Algorithm Flowchart Algorithm Pseudo-code Algorithm 4. Implementation --- Write the "Program" (Code) 5. Verification and Testing --- Test and Debug the Code 10 -15

1. Requirements Specification (Problem Definition) Given a light-bulb with a pre-measured power consumption(in watts), compute the resistance (in ohms) of the bulb. 2. Analysis---Refine, Generalize, Decompose the problem definition (i. e. , identify sub-problems, I/O, etc. ) Input = real number representing power Output=real number representing resistance 10 -16

3. Design---Develop Algorithm Natural-Language Algorithm Prompt user for the power dissipation Read power Store value in storage location called power. Compute the resistance solving the formula “power = (voltage*voltage)/resistance” in terms of resistance = (voltage * voltage)/ power Print out the value stored in location resistance. 10 -17

3. Design---Develop Algorithm Pseudo-code Algorithm print “enter power in watts” read power resistance = (117. 0 * 117. 0)/power print resistance 10 -18

3. Design---Develop Algorithm Flowchart Algorithm Flow is assumed down unless otherwise specified with an arrow. Trapezoid used to designate I/O. Rectangle used to designate one or more statements in a block. Circle used as continuation symbol for transfer to another page. start Output : “enter power in watts” Input : power Compute: resistance=(117*117)/power Output: : resistance stop

4. Implementation --- Write the "Program" (Code) (see the next slide) The lecture slides show the use of the geditor but the choice of editor is not critical. 10 -20

C Code Implementation of the Algorithm /* C Program to compute the resistance */ /* of a light-bulb. */ #include <stdio. h> #define VAC 117. 0 void main(void) { /* Declare variables. */ float power, resistance; /* request user input power of */ /* light-bulb in watts. */ printf(”Please enter power(watts) : ”); /* read value power */ scanf("%f", &power); /* Compute resistance assuming VAC = 117. */ resistance = (VAC * VAC) /power; /* Output the calculated resistance. */ printf(”Resistance is %f (ohms)n", resistance); } (Note indentation scheme in above code. )

C program compilation Open gedit and enter your code. Note the &.

C program compilation Click the “Save” button in gedit to save your code but don’t close the gedit window. Click on the xterm window and type the command to compile your code.

C program compilation Use the “gcc” program to compile your C source code in the file “resistance. c”. > ls resistance. c~ Note: backup files begin and/or end with a ~ or a # symbol. Do not edit or compile these files! > gcc resistance. c The “gcc” program will not alter the file “resistance. c”. The output of “gcc” is by default contained in the file “a. out”. The file “a. out” is called an executable file. (continued on next slide)

C program compilation Note that the “gcc” program noted an error on line 18 in the program and “gcc” generated a warning for line 7. Also, note that there is no a. out file listed. Errors cause gcc to abort and you will not get an a. out file. Go back to gedit line 18 and fix the syntax error. (continued on next slide)

The error on line 18 was actually caused by a missing semicolon on line 16. In C a semicolon means “end of statement”. This differs from Matlab where a semicolon means suppress output and is optional. Since there was no semicolon after line 16, C assumed that lines 16 - 18 represented one C statement. That is incorrect syntactically, so gcc (the compiler program or compiler for short) generated an error message and terminated before producing an a. out file.

C program compilation After adding a semicolon to the end of line 16, Click “Save” in gedit and go back to the xterm and type again. . . Note: The dot-slash in “. /a. out ” means “ in this working directory”. If you type “ a. out ” at the Unix prompt Unix will first search your home directory for a file “ a. out ”. Of course this would not be the same “ a. out ” file you created in another directory.

A CPU only executes machine code which consists of instructions that are specific to a particular manufacturer. The machine code is a sequence of ones and zeros. The C language is more human-language-like than machine code and can be converted to machine code by using a compiler (gcc in CS 101). C code is more portable than machine code. In the design and development of an algorithm we can use any combination of “Natural Language”, “Pseudo-code” and “Flowchart”. Matlab code is executed by means of an interpreter that is running in the Matlab “environment”. Each time the Matlab code runs the interpreter converts the code into machine code. C code is compiled into an executable file (machine code) once. We then run the program (default name a. out) by typing the command (. /a. out)_at the Unix prompt. 10 -28