What is Qualitative Research A holistic approach to

What is Qualitative Research? ®A holistic approach to questions--a recognition that human realities are complex. Broad questions. ® The focus is on human experience ® The research strategies used generally feature sustained contact with people in settings where those people normally spend their time. Contexts of Human Behavior. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 1

Qualitative Research cont. ® There is typically a high level of researcher involvement with subjects; strategies of participant observation and in-depth, unstructured interviews are often used. ® The data produced provide a description, usually narrative, of people living through events in situations. Cited from Boyd, pp. 67 -68 in Munhall, 2001 Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 2

Types of Qualitative Data ® 1. Interviews ® 2. Observations ® 3. Documents Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 3

Types of Qualitative Data ® 1. Interviews ® Open-ended questions and probes yield in-depth responses about people’s experiences, opinions, perceptions, feelings and knowledge. ® Data consist of verbatim quotations with sufficient context to be interpretable. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 4

Types of Qualitative Data cont. ® 2. Observations ® Fieldwork descriptions of activities, behaviors, actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, organizational or community processes, or any other aspect of observable human experience. ® Data consist of field notes: rich detailed descriptions, including the context within which the observations were made. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 5

Types of Qualitative Data cont. ® 3. Documents ® Written materials and other documents, programs records; memoranda and correspondence; official publications and reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic works, photographs, and memorabilia; and written responses to open-ended surveys. ® Spring 2006 Data consists of excerpts from documents captured in a way that records and preserves context. Qualitative Research--Simpson 6

Qualitative Traditions of Inquiry ® 1. ® 2. ® 3. ® 4. ® 5. Biography--Life history, oral history Phenomenology--The lived experience Grounded theory Ethnography Case Study Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 7

Biographical Study ® The study of an individual and her or his experiences as told to the researcher or found in documents and archival material. ® Life history--The study of an individual’s life and how it reflects cultural themes of the society. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 8

Biographical Study cont. ® Oral history--The researcher gathers personal recollections of events, their causes, and their effects from and individual or several individuals. ® The researcher needs to collect extensive information about the subject of the biography Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 9

Biographical Study cont. ] The writer, using an interpretive approach, needs to be able to bring himself or herself into the narrative and acknowledge his or her standpoint. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 10

Phenomenology ® Describes the meaning of the lived experience about a concept or a phenomenon for several individuals. ® It has roots in the philosophical perspectives of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, etc. --Max Van Manen, Munhall (Nursing) Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 11

Phenomenology ® Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: “to determine what an experience means for the persons who have had the experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. From the individual descriptions, general or universal meanings are derived, in other words, the essences of structures of the experience. ” Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 12

Grounded Theory ® Based on Symbolic Interactionism which posits that humans act and interact on the basis of symbols, which have meaning and value for the actors. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 13

Grounded Theory cont. ® The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a theory that relates to a particular situation. If little is known about a topic, grounded theory is especially useful Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 14

Grounded Theory cont. ® Usually have a question, don’t do a literature review in the beginning. ® Usually do 20 -30 interviews (maybe more than one time for each person) Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 15

Grounded Theory cont. ® Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously, until “saturation” is reached. ® Data reviewed and coded for categories and themes. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 16

Grounded Theory cont. ® Data analysis generates a visual picture, a narrative statement or a series of hypotheses with a central phenomenon, causal conditions, context and consequences. ® The researcher needs to set aside theoretical ideas or notions so that analytical or substantive theories can emerge from the data. ® Systematic approach Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 17

Ethnography ®A description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system. The researcher examines the group’s observable and learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life. ® Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through participant observation. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 18

Ethnography ® Field Work ® Key Informants ® Thick description ® Emic (insider group perspective) and Etic (researcher’s interpretation of social life). ® Context important, need holistic view. ® Need grounding in anthropology. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 19

Ethnography cont. ® Need extensive time to collect data ® Many ethnographies may be written in a narrative or story telling approach which may be difficult for the audience accustomed to usual social science writing. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 20

Ethnography cont. ® May incorporate quantitative data and archival documents. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 21

Case Study ® A case study is an exploration of a “bounded system” or a case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context. ® The context of the case involves situating the case within its setting. which may be physical, social, historical and/or economic. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 22

Case Study cont. ® Data collection strategies include direct observation, interviews, documents, archival records, participant observation, physical artifacts and audiovisual materials. ® Analysis of themes, or issues and an interpretation of the case by the researcher. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 23

Designing a Qualitative Study ® Problem Statement or Statement of Need for the Study ® No hypothesis; Research questions which you want to answer instead. ® Opinions differ about the extent of literature needed before a study begins. ® Need to identify the gaps in knowledge about the topic. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 24

Qualitative Study Design cont. ® Research questions that are too broad: ® Does Buddhism account for the patience that seems to dominate the Thai world view? ® How Spring 2006 do leaders make their decisions? Qualitative Research--Simpson 25

Qualitative Study Design cont. ® Research questions better answered by quicker means: ® What television programs do Brazilians watch most? ® Where can you buy postage stamps in Italy? Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 26

Qualitative Study Design cont. ® Examples of Qualitative Questions ® What do people in this setting have to know in order to do what they are doing? ® What is the story that can be told from these experiences? ® What are the underlying themes and contexts that account for the experience? Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 27

Qualitative Sampling Strategies ® No probability sampling Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 28

Sampling Strategies cont. ® Decisions about sampling and sampling strategies depend on the unit of analysis which has been determined. ® individual people ® program, group organization or community ® genders, ethnic groups, older and younger Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 29

Sampling Strategies cont. ® Purposeful or Judgment Sampling ® “In judgment sampling, you decide the purpose you want informants (or communities) to serve, and you go out to find some” Bernard, 2000: 176 ® “Key Informants” are people who are particularly knowledgeable about the inquiry setting and articulate about their knowledge. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 30

Sampling Strategies cont. ® Purposeful Sampling Strategies ® Maximum variation ® Homogeneous ® Critical case ® Theory based ® Confirming and disconfirming cases Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 31

Sampling Strategies cont. ® Snowball or chain ® Extreme or deviant case ® Typical case ® Intensity ® Politically important cases ® Random purposeful Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 32

Sampling Strategies cont. ® Stratified purposeful ® Criterion ® Opportunistic ® Combination or mixed ® Convenience Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 33

Qualitative Data Collection ® Rather than developing an instrument to use, the qualitative researcher is the instrument. ® Recording data: Field notes, tape recorders, video and photographic data ® Interviews must be transcribed. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 34

Fieldwork Strategies and Observations ® “In the fields of observation, chance favors the prepared mind. ” Louis Pasteur ® “People only see what they are prepared to see. ” Ralph Waldo Emerson Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 35

Fieldwork Observations ® Learn to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear what there is to hear. ® Practice writing descriptively ® Acquiring discipline in recording field notes ® Knowing how to separate detail from trivia to achieve the former without being overwhelmed by the latter. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 36

Fieldwork Observations cont. ® Use rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations. ® Reporting strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective, which requires both self-knowledge and self-disclosure. ® Participant observer or onlooker or both Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 37

Qualitative Interviewing 1. Informal conversational interview 2. Interview guide approach 3. Standardized open-ended interview 4. Closed, fixed-response interview Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 38

Qualitative Interviewing cont. ® Sequencing questions ® Use words that make sense to the people being interviewed. ® Ask truly open-ended questions ® Avoid questions which can be answered with a yes or no. ® One idea per question. ® Be careful with Why questions. Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 39

Qualitative Data Analysis ® When does analysis begin? During data collection. ® Thick description is the foundation for qualitative analysis and reporting. ® Organize the data. Read all the data and get a sense of the whole. ® Coding for recurring themes and categories Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 40

Qualitative Data Analysis ® Computer-assisted qualitative data management and analysis ® Ethnograph ® NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured Data With Indexing, Searching and Theorizing) QSR N 6 and QSR NVivo ® ATLAS. ti Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 41

Qualitative Data Analysis ® Coding data ® Finding Patterns ® Labeling Themes ® Developing Category Systems ® Looking for emergent patterns in the data Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 42

References Bernard, H. R. (2000). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Munhall, P. L. (2001). Nursing Research: A Qualitative Perspective, 3 rd Edition. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods, 3 rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 43