What is personality The first question The Steadfast

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What is personality? The first question…. . “The Steadfast Philosopher, " by Gerard von

What is personality? The first question…. . “The Steadfast Philosopher, " by Gerard von Honthurst (1623)

Personality • From the greek word personé (masque worn by dramatic actors) • The

Personality • From the greek word personé (masque worn by dramatic actors) • The meaning has changed through history : from “external illusion” to “surface reality” and finally to opaque or veiled inner traits.

Personality • It is seen today as a complex pattern of psychological characteristics, largely

Personality • It is seen today as a complex pattern of psychological characteristics, largely unconscious and not easily altered, expressing themselves automatically in almost every facet of functioning.

Defining Personality • Affective and willingness totality of the individual (instinct, temperament, character) (Bini-Bazzi)

Defining Personality • Affective and willingness totality of the individual (instinct, temperament, character) (Bini-Bazzi)

Allport (1937) • Biosocial definition: • the character of the individual as a “social

Allport (1937) • Biosocial definition: • the character of the individual as a “social stimulus” personality is a consequence of interpersonal relationships. • Biophisic definition: personality is the totality of subjective qualities and characteristics it has an organic aspect and a measurable quality.

Different meaning from: Temperament Millon-Davis Temperament Bini-Bazzi From the greek word temperà (melting pot)

Different meaning from: Temperament Millon-Davis Temperament Bini-Bazzi From the greek word temperà (melting pot) it reflects the constitutional disposition to activity and emotionality Aspect of personality concerning affectivity and elemental psychomotility • emotivity (ability, intensity and expressivity of own feelings) • fundamental affective tone

Different meaning from: Character Millon-Davis Character Bini-Bazzi From the greek word charaktēr (incision) it

Different meaning from: Character Millon-Davis Character Bini-Bazzi From the greek word charaktēr (incision) it meanly indicates the moral and social value dimensions of personality Totality of the elements characterizing the values and purpose of the individual • self evaluation (ipervaluation, subvaluation, ambivalence) • purpose (submission, dominance)

Theophraste (c. 370 - c. 265) Aristotle’s pupil, friend and collaborator before becoming his

Theophraste (c. 370 - c. 265) Aristotle’s pupil, friend and collaborator before becoming his successor at the Lyceum, The little book of “Characters” was destinated to moral education, rhetorical, dramatic formation or to simple amusement?

Theophraste: The 30 characters 1. The Clever 2. The Flatterer 3. The Great talker

Theophraste: The 30 characters 1. The Clever 2. The Flatterer 3. The Great talker 4. The Lout 5. The Flagornor 6. The Rabble 7. The Speechifier 8. The Gazette 9. The Shameless 10. The Skinflint 11. The Boor 12. The Bore 13. The busybody 14. The thoughtless 15. The Rude 16. The Superstitious 17. The Grouser 18. The Being wary 19. The Disgusting 20. The Bore 21. The maker 22. The skinflints 23. The hablor 24. Arrogant 25. The couard 26. Reactionary 27. Old youth 28. The Scandalmonger 29. The Rabble 30. The covetous one

No definition of personality could be considered universally accepted…. . It depends on the

No definition of personality could be considered universally accepted…. . It depends on the different “personality theory” of reference

Theories about personality development • • Constitutionalistic Objectivistic Social learning Psychodinamic Perception Relational Phenomenologicalexistentialist

Theories about personality development • • Constitutionalistic Objectivistic Social learning Psychodinamic Perception Relational Phenomenologicalexistentialist • • • Cognitivistic Functionalinstic (Allport) Field theory (Lewin) Personology (Murray) Biosocial (Murphy) Personal constructs (Kelly) • Self (Rogers) • Marxism • Factorial

Theories about personality • • Constitutionalistic Objectivistic Social learning Psychodinamic Perception Relational Phenomenologicalexistentialist •

Theories about personality • • Constitutionalistic Objectivistic Social learning Psychodinamic Perception Relational Phenomenologicalexistentialist • • • Cognitivistic Functionalinstic (Allport) Field theory (Lewin) Personology (Murray) Biosocial (Murphy) Personal constructs (Kelly) • Self (Rogers) • Marxism • Factorial Hall C S, Lindzey G, Teorie della personalità, 1986, Boringhieri serretti. alessandro@hsr. it

Theories about personality development • • Constitutionalistic Objectivistic Social learning Psychodinamic Perception Relational Phenomenological-existentialist

Theories about personality development • • Constitutionalistic Objectivistic Social learning Psychodinamic Perception Relational Phenomenological-existentialist

Constitutionalistic theory • From the ancient greek-roman medicine: Hippocrates - Galen • Humoral doctrines:

Constitutionalistic theory • From the ancient greek-roman medicine: Hippocrates - Galen • Humoral doctrines: all diseases stemmed from an excess of or imbalance among four bodily humours

Constitutionalistic theory yellow bile = hearth choleric temperament

Constitutionalistic theory yellow bile = hearth choleric temperament

Constitutionalistic theory black bile = water melancholic temperament

Constitutionalistic theory black bile = water melancholic temperament

Constitutionalistic theory blood = fire sanguine temperament

Constitutionalistic theory blood = fire sanguine temperament

Constitutionalistic theory phlegm = air phlegmatic temperament

Constitutionalistic theory phlegm = air phlegmatic temperament

Ernst Kretchmer: Four basic physical types • pyknic: large thorax and abdomen, soft and

Ernst Kretchmer: Four basic physical types • pyknic: large thorax and abdomen, soft and poorly muscled limbs, tendency towards obesity

Ernst Kretchmer: Four basic physical types • athletic: extensive muscular development, broad skeletal endowment

Ernst Kretchmer: Four basic physical types • athletic: extensive muscular development, broad skeletal endowment

Ernst Kretchmer: Four basic physical types • asthenic: fragile, possessing thin muscularity, frail bone

Ernst Kretchmer: Four basic physical types • asthenic: fragile, possessing thin muscularity, frail bone structure

Ernst Kretchmer: Four basic physical types • dysplastic: a mixture of the other three

Ernst Kretchmer: Four basic physical types • dysplastic: a mixture of the other three variants

Ernst Kretchmer • Psychotic disorders are accentuations of normal personality types

Ernst Kretchmer • Psychotic disorders are accentuations of normal personality types

William Sheldon: Three basic dimension • Endomorphy: predominance of roundness and softness viscerotomia (gregariousnes,

William Sheldon: Three basic dimension • Endomorphy: predominance of roundness and softness viscerotomia (gregariousnes, easy expression of feeling and emotion, love of confort, avoidance of pain, dependance on social approval)

William Sheldon: Three basic dimension • Mesomorphy: muscular and connective tissue dominance somatotomia (assertiveness,

William Sheldon: Three basic dimension • Mesomorphy: muscular and connective tissue dominance somatotomia (assertiveness, physical energy, low anxiety, courage, social callousness, indifference to pain, need for action and power when troubled)

William Sheldon: Three basic dimension • Ectomorphy: linearity and fragility of structure cerebrotonia (restraint,

William Sheldon: Three basic dimension • Ectomorphy: linearity and fragility of structure cerebrotonia (restraint, selfconsciousness, introversion, social awardness, desire for solitude when troubled)

Somatotypes l l l Ectomorph thin frail physique cerebrotonia shy, restrained, introspective anxious, neurotic

Somatotypes l l l Ectomorph thin frail physique cerebrotonia shy, restrained, introspective anxious, neurotic

Somatotypes l Endomorph l soft, rounded physique l relaxed, social easy going l depressed,

Somatotypes l Endomorph l soft, rounded physique l relaxed, social easy going l depressed, over-indulgent

Somatotypes l Mesomorph l muscular, strong physique l bold, assertive, energetic l aggressive, hyperactive,

Somatotypes l Mesomorph l muscular, strong physique l bold, assertive, energetic l aggressive, hyperactive, Type A

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic • Holistic • Objectivistic • Social learning •

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic • Holistic • Objectivistic • Social learning • Psychodinamic • Perception • Relational • Phenomenological-existentialist

Holistic theory • K. Goldstein Is more useful studying an individual completely than an

Holistic theory • K. Goldstein Is more useful studying an individual completely than an isolated psychical function in many individuals

Holistic theory • A. H. Maslow Personality is an integration of basic needs –

Holistic theory • A. H. Maslow Personality is an integration of basic needs – physiological needs (hunger, thirst) – security needs (belonging to a group, love) – cognitive and aesthetic needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs “peak experience. ” self fulfillment Actualizing Needs esteem belonging, love

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs “peak experience. ” self fulfillment Actualizing Needs esteem belonging, love Psychological Needs safety physiological Basic Needs

Key Assumptions inherent striving for selfrealization l satisfaction of needs leads to growth l

Key Assumptions inherent striving for selfrealization l satisfaction of needs leads to growth l frustration of needs leads to pathology l self-actualization l

Self-Actualized People ideal self = perceived (actual) l take responsibility for self-change l acknowledge

Self-Actualized People ideal self = perceived (actual) l take responsibility for self-change l acknowledge imperfections and ordinary feelings like others l accept themselves as worthwhile l

Self-Actualized People have a deep feeling of kinship with others l enjoy solitude as

Self-Actualized People have a deep feeling of kinship with others l enjoy solitude as well as companionship l are able to focus on problems outside themselves l are strongly ethical, creative l

Holistic theory • P. Lecky Personality is the maintaining of a unified and auto

Holistic theory • P. Lecky Personality is the maintaining of a unified and auto - consistent aspect in an unstable environment, from which the individual accepts the self - coherent values and rejects the others.

Abhidharma…. oriental psychology • The mind is the start point, the focus point and

Abhidharma…. oriental psychology • The mind is the start point, the focus point and also, the arrival point • Psychopathology is due to a lack of control on the mindbody

Abhidharma…. oriental psychology • There is no agent separated from the action, no percept

Abhidharma…. oriental psychology • There is no agent separated from the action, no percept separated from perception, no coscient subject separated from conscience • Meditation conducts to a sane personality – Concentration – Attention

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Holistic • Objectivistic • Social learning •

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Holistic • Objectivistic • Social learning • Psychodinamic • Perception • Relational • Phenomenological-existentialist

Objectivistic theory • Russian reflexologic school – I. P. Pavlov • force (scarce sensibility

Objectivistic theory • Russian reflexologic school – I. P. Pavlov • force (scarce sensibility to peripheric stumuli) • equilibrium (related to EEG indexes) • mobility (adaptive capacity) • American behaviourism – J. B. Watson • habits (cue + response) as fundaments • drives (instinct and learning) as dynamic factors

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Holistic ü Objectivistic • Social learning •

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Holistic ü Objectivistic • Social learning • Psychodinamic • Perception • Relational • Phenomenological-existentialist

Social learning theory • J. B Rotter – personality is the characteristic way to

Social learning theory • J. B Rotter – personality is the characteristic way to react to an identifiable situation – potential behaviour (interaction between the individual and the environment) – expectation of the individual, based on his/her past experiences – reinforcement strictly connected to motivation – motivation

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Objectivistic ü Social learning • Psychodinamic •

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Objectivistic ü Social learning • Psychodinamic • Perception • Relational • Phenomenological-existentialist

Theories of Personality Sigmund Freud . . . a distinctive and relatively stable pattern

Theories of Personality Sigmund Freud . . . a distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual. Alfred Adler Jung and Adler were “Freud pupils”, who used some Freudian ideas but developed many ideas of their own. . . Carl Jung

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Three Main Components • Thoughts and behavior are guided mainly by

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Three Main Components • Thoughts and behavior are guided mainly by the unconscious part of the mind. • Sexual motivation plays a central role in everyday life. • Concept of “infantile sexuality”: erotic experiences in infancy and early childhood shape personality in adulthood.

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Three Levels of the Mind • Conscious: everything we are aware

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Three Levels of the Mind • Conscious: everything we are aware of at the moment; just the “tip of the iceberg”. • Preconscious: memories that we can bring to consciousness. • Unconscious: memories, wishes, and instincts (desires) that are too threatening or painful to bring to consciousness.

According to Freud, much of what people do, think and feel is really a

According to Freud, much of what people do, think and feel is really a way of avoiding anxiety. Anxiety is the way the body signals us that we face a threatening situation. For Freud, the threat comes from the unconscious: an unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulse. Protecting ourselves from this anxiety is normal and natural. Carried to an extreme, it becomes a psychological disorder: Neurosis: a disorder in which one’s efforts to avoid anxiety interfere with or limit normal human functioning; it involves self-punishing, selfdefeating behavior, and emotional or physical symptoms.

Freud assumed that neurotic patients were like normal individuals; they just went too far

Freud assumed that neurotic patients were like normal individuals; they just went too far in their efforts to avoid anxiety. The theory is harder to apply to a more severe type of disorder: Psychosis: an extreme mental disturbance involving distorted perceptions of reality and irrational behavior; basically, a complete break with reality. Freud said that personality is divided into 3 parts, ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO. They are always in conflict but most of the time the conflict is unconscious.

Psychodynamic Theories Motives Unconscious Conflicts Personality = Interplay

Psychodynamic Theories Motives Unconscious Conflicts Personality = Interplay

Key Assumptions l psychic determinism - all feelings, thoughts, actions have a purpose, are

Key Assumptions l psychic determinism - all feelings, thoughts, actions have a purpose, are motivated l personality is determined by events or actions from early life l personality is the interplay of conscious and unconscious conflicts, motives

Key Concepts l developmental stages l psychodynamic (object) relations l defense mechanisms

Key Concepts l developmental stages l psychodynamic (object) relations l defense mechanisms

Structure of the Mind l Unconscious: material unavailable to current awareness motivated forgetting l

Structure of the Mind l Unconscious: material unavailable to current awareness motivated forgetting l Preconscious: material available to awareness, momentarily out of consciousness - lack of attention l Perceptual Conscious: material in current awareness

Windows to the Unconscious l dreams l humor l slips of the tongue

Windows to the Unconscious l dreams l humor l slips of the tongue

Personality Structure l ID: source of libidinal (sexual) and aggressive drives l Pleasure Principle:

Personality Structure l ID: source of libidinal (sexual) and aggressive drives l Pleasure Principle: immediate gratification of drives and impulses

Personality Structure l EGO: Source of rational choice l Reality Principle: search for realistic,

Personality Structure l EGO: Source of rational choice l Reality Principle: search for realistic, balanced gratification of drives

Personality Structure l SUPEREGO: Source of “socially correct” choice - “conscience” l Morality Principle:

Personality Structure l SUPEREGO: Source of “socially correct” choice - “conscience” l Morality Principle: demands for “perfect” behavior “always”, regardless of circumstances

Well-Balanced Personality Structure id ego demands of real world superego

Well-Balanced Personality Structure id ego demands of real world superego

Antisocial Personality id ego demands of real world superego

Antisocial Personality id ego demands of real world superego

Compulsive Personality id ego demands of real world super ego

Compulsive Personality id ego demands of real world super ego

Depressed, Anxious id ego dema nds of real superego

Depressed, Anxious id ego dema nds of real superego

Psychotic Personality id ego demands of real world superego

Psychotic Personality id ego demands of real world superego

Jung’s Psychological Types Theory • Attitudes (extroversion and introversion) • Functions (judgement criteria: thought

Jung’s Psychological Types Theory • Attitudes (extroversion and introversion) • Functions (judgement criteria: thought - feeling, perception criteria: intuition - sensation) • 8 psychological types based on the combination of the two attitudes with the four functions – – introverted thought feeling intuition sensation extroverted thought feeling intuition sensation

Jung’s Psychological Types Theory • Attitudes (extroversion and introversion) • the attitude towards which

Jung’s Psychological Types Theory • Attitudes (extroversion and introversion) • the attitude towards which the subject orients him/herself : – on the objective reality (extroverted) – on the subjective reality (introverted) • judgement functions (thought and feeling) – rational function: they proceed through value attributions • perception functions (intuition and sensation) – perceptive functions: they proceed through sense

Adler’s Theory • Personality is the result of the conflict between power will (which

Adler’s Theory • Personality is the result of the conflict between power will (which attempts to compensate the inferiority complex) and social feeling (which is caused by the need of co-operation of the individual whit his/her limits) • differences in personality are due to different cultural values and adaptability to the environmental circumstances.

Reich’s Theory • Personality is a chronic alteration of ego, to protect it from

Reich’s Theory • Personality is a chronic alteration of ego, to protect it from internal and external harms • it is an armour, and so a limitation of the psychic mobility. • This limitation is attenuated by some atypical relationships, the only free communications in a blinded system (bioenergetics) • two principles – endogenous = libido – exogenous = “orgone” (education, ethics, “social needs” satisfaction) • these two principles are in conflict: personality is the result

Reich’s Theory • Hysteric: nervous, agile, inconstant, apprehensive • Coactus: inhibited, depressive • Phallic

Reich’s Theory • Hysteric: nervous, agile, inconstant, apprehensive • Coactus: inhibited, depressive • Phallic - narcissistic: self confident, arrogant, vigorous, impressive • Masochist: who feels pleasant all the things that other people feel unpleasant

Reich’s Theory - developments: A. Lowen • Oral: characterised by the desire and pleasure

Reich’s Theory - developments: A. Lowen • Oral: characterised by the desire and pleasure to talk as a mean to obtain attention, interest and love • Masochist: characterised by a self directed aggressiveness • Hysteric: characterised by an excess of energy which overcome the ego • Phallic-narcissistic: characterised by exaggerated sexuality and aggressiveness to compensate a constitutional weakness

M. Klein’s Theory • The development of personality is essentially relationship related • first

M. Klein’s Theory • The development of personality is essentially relationship related • first relationship are fundamental for future personality development: mother-infant relationship • schizo - paranoid position: first 4 months of life – aggressiveness co- exist with libido: the object is partial and divided, the processes actuated are introjection and projection; fear has a persecution character and the not integrated ego defends itself with scission and denial • depressive position: after the fifth month of life – scission between the good object and the bad object is attenuated and the child perceives the mother as a whole person; the fear becomes depressive for the imagined harm of destroying the mother

Object Relations l focus on mental representations of self and others l integration of

Object Relations l focus on mental representations of self and others l integration of the positive and negative aspects into realistic whole l formation of attachments – intimate relations l attachment theory

K. Horney’s Theory • Personality develops as the result of the conflicts between the

K. Horney’s Theory • Personality develops as the result of the conflicts between the individual and the environment, between the need of a passive dependence and the defence against an hostile society • “basic anxiety” = is produced by all the situations disturbing the confidence of children in the relationship with their parents • the children react against this basic anxiety with different attitudes: hostility, submission, evasion, which can become stable drives or needs in personality dynamics

O. Rank’s Theory • Personality depends on the fixation in one of the three

O. Rank’s Theory • Personality depends on the fixation in one of the three phases of development – the phase in which the individual wants the things the others want Dependent Character – The phase of the conflict between the individual exigencies and the exigencies of the others Neurotic Character – The phase in which the individual integrates his exigencies with the exigencies of the others Integrated Character

E. Fromm’s Theory • Personality is the result of the conflict between certainty research

E. Fromm’s Theory • Personality is the result of the conflict between certainty research and freedom desire • These are two contrasting exigencies because certainty limits freedom and freedom is authentic when it leaves out of consideration certainty • Five types – Receptive: depends on the others, sense of inadequacy, masochistic – Parasite: sadist traits, hostility, manipulation – Possessive: personality structured on the material possession – Merchant: importance given to the social role – Productive: tension to progress and trascendence

E. S. Sullivan’s Theory • Relationships are essential in the development of personality •

E. S. Sullivan’s Theory • Relationships are essential in the development of personality • Dynamisms are the essential schemes of behaviour in relationships • Personifications are images (originated in infancy) that the individuals attribute to themselves and to others; when they are shared they become stereotypes • Cognitive processes are subdivided in: – Protothaxic – Parathaxic – Synthaxic

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Objectivistic ü Social learning ü Psychodinamic •

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Objectivistic ü Social learning ü Psychodinamic • Relational • Phenomenological-existentialist

Relational theory (Watzlawick) • Personality is a system • Personality is distinct by comunication

Relational theory (Watzlawick) • Personality is a system • Personality is distinct by comunication which has not any opposite, because both activity and inactivity (words and silence) are a message, and influence the others, who have to answer to communication by communicating themselves

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Objectivistic ü Social learning ü Psychodinamic ü

Theories about personality development ü Constitutionalistic ü Objectivistic ü Social learning ü Psychodinamic ü Relational • Phenomenological-existentialist

K. Jaspers • Attitude : – Objective – Autoreflectant – Enthusiactic • Images of

K. Jaspers • Attitude : – Objective – Autoreflectant – Enthusiactic • Images of the world – Spatio-sensorial – Psychic-cultural – Metafisic

K. Jaspers • Throug the same attitudes men communicate to each other and comprehend

K. Jaspers • Throug the same attitudes men communicate to each other and comprehend each other. When attitudes are different, they live, thought, act, near each other without being in touch

Theories about personality • • Constitutionalistic Objectivistic Social learning Psychodinamic Perception Relational Phenomenologicalexistentialist •

Theories about personality • • Constitutionalistic Objectivistic Social learning Psychodinamic Perception Relational Phenomenologicalexistentialist • • • Cognitivistic Functionalinstic (Allport) Field theory (Lewin) Personology (Murray) Biosocial (Murphy) Personal constructs (Kelly) • Self (Rogers) • Marxism • Factorial Hall C S, Lindzey G, Teorie della personalità, 1986, Boringhieri serretti. alessandro@hsr. it

Factorial theories • R. B. Cattell – personality traits – measure instruments L=biographic interview

Factorial theories • R. B. Cattell – personality traits – measure instruments L=biographic interview Q=autovalidation inventory T=objective tests 16 PF • H. J. Heysenk – dimensions – types (general factors), traits (group factors), abitual responses, specific responses

Raymond Cattell-History • • Born 1905 in England World War I led to interest

Raymond Cattell-History • • Born 1905 in England World War I led to interest in social issues Initial training in physics and chemistry Worked with Spearman--mathematical emphasis • Exposed to factor analysis in the U. S. • A key figure in the trait and factor movement during and after World War II

Trait Approach (formal definition) Traits are emotional, cognitive, and behavioral tendencies that constitute underlying

Trait Approach (formal definition) Traits are emotional, cognitive, and behavioral tendencies that constitute underlying personality dimensions

Trait & Factor Assumptions • A myriad of human characteristics exist • Basically, a

Trait & Factor Assumptions • A myriad of human characteristics exist • Basically, a smaller sub-set of personality traits can account for human individual differences • Traits may be identified both deductively (consistent with an existing theory) or inductively. • Different theorists proposed different traits based on their methodological approach (e. g. Jung vs Cattell) • Traits vs states (e. g anxiety) • There was a “Trait and Factor” era in psychology

Trait Approach How do we measure traits?

Trait Approach How do we measure traits?

Trait Approach One approach would be to generate labels for oneself (e. g. ,

Trait Approach One approach would be to generate labels for oneself (e. g. , honest, dishonest).

Trait Approach What is the major problem with this approach?

Trait Approach What is the major problem with this approach?

Trait Approach There are over 18, 000 words in Webster’s dictionary that can be

Trait Approach There are over 18, 000 words in Webster’s dictionary that can be used to describe an individual. Many of these words however denote similar characteristics

Trait Approach Cattell (1957) reduced the majority of these words to a list of

Trait Approach Cattell (1957) reduced the majority of these words to a list of 16 traits (e. g. , warm, emotionally stable, intelligent…)

Trait Approach • factor analysis (a statistical technique used to identify underlying dimensions) •

Trait Approach • factor analysis (a statistical technique used to identify underlying dimensions) • given a list of items determine which item(s) is related to which item(s)

Assumptions of Factor Analysis • An inductive method – Exploratory vs confirmatory factor analysis

Assumptions of Factor Analysis • An inductive method – Exploratory vs confirmatory factor analysis • Founded on quantitative observations • A data reduction approach – Simplify original data – Identify relationships (factors) • Limited by the extent of original data and the number of individual cases included – A common bias in FA studies

Methods of Factor Analysis • Quantification of a broad range of data – Convergent

Methods of Factor Analysis • Quantification of a broad range of data – Convergent and divergent – Multiple methods • Based on correlation and matrix algebra • Factor loading (principle components analysis) • Factor rotation (orthogonal - varimax - and oblique) • Factor interpretation (qualitative) • Pre-computer computations were Herculean

Cattell’s Approach • Source vs surface traits • Extensive quantitative data (L, Q, &

Cattell’s Approach • Source vs surface traits • Extensive quantitative data (L, Q, & T data) – Avoid method error variance • Oblique factor rotation (factor intercorrelation) • 16 PF Scale • Cattell believed that he had found all of the important personality traits

Cattell’s Trait Categories • 23 Normal Primary Source Traits • 12 Abnormal Primary Source

Cattell’s Trait Categories • 23 Normal Primary Source Traits • 12 Abnormal Primary Source Traits • 8 Second order Source Traits – Factor analysis of factor analysis

Cattell’s Dynamic Trait Theory • Attitudes: a desire to act in response to a

Cattell’s Dynamic Trait Theory • Attitudes: a desire to act in response to a situation. • Ergs: 10 innate drives or motives • Sems: social acquired attitudes (learned) • Dynamic – Inter-relation of attitudes, ergs, and seems – Used to explain and predict behavior. .

Trait Theory • Cattell’s 16 PF • 16 basic behavior clusters • position on

Trait Theory • Cattell’s 16 PF • 16 basic behavior clusters • position on continua, creates profile • relaxed – tense; trusting – suspicious; practical – imaginative; submissive – dominant; timid – venturesome

Hans Eysenk-History • • Born 1916 in Germany Went to England to escape the

Hans Eysenk-History • • Born 1916 in Germany Went to England to escape the Nazi’s Accidentally entered psychology Influenced by psychometrically oriented teachers (Spearman) • Study of the effectiveness of psychotherapy

Eysenk’s Approach • Hypothetic-deductive: pre-analysis theorizing • Genetic-biological emphasis • Traits are “important semi-permanent

Eysenk’s Approach • Hypothetic-deductive: pre-analysis theorizing • Genetic-biological emphasis • Traits are “important semi-permanent personality dispositions. ” • Use of orthogonal rotation • Focus on Types or derived factors--aiming for maximum simplicity

Eysenk’s Factors • Factor characteristics – Bi-polar factors – Normally distributed • Extraversion-Introversion •

Eysenk’s Factors • Factor characteristics – Bi-polar factors – Normally distributed • Extraversion-Introversion • Neuroticism-Stability • Psychoticism-Superego function

Evaluation of Trait & Factor Theories • • • Generated much research Precise and

Evaluation of Trait & Factor Theories • • • Generated much research Precise and testable Moderately falsifiable Applied value (16 PF and MPI) Research validity Parsimony

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) A good acronym to use in remembering these five

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) A good acronym to use in remembering these five factors is: OCEAN- openness conscientiousness extroversion agreeableness neuroticism

Trait Theory • Big Five • • 5 higher order factors OCEAN – openness,

Trait Theory • Big Five • • 5 higher order factors OCEAN – openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism • Really Big 2 • extraversion – introversion • stability – instability

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) Can anyone see a potential problem with this research?

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) Can anyone see a potential problem with this research? Hint: On what has this work been based?

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) The potential problem pertains to whether these traits are

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) The potential problem pertains to whether these traits are crossculturally universal?

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) Mc. Crae and colleagues (1997, 1998) these five factors

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) Mc. Crae and colleagues (1997, 1998) these five factors do appear to be similar across cultures

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) • when words are translated the five traits appear

Trait Approach (Five Factor Model) • when words are translated the five traits appear • when words from the native language are used the five traits do not always hold up e. g. , Chinese - only three of the five factors appeared

Trait Approach (advantages) • Traits are measurable • Develop more objective personality tests –

Trait Approach (advantages) • Traits are measurable • Develop more objective personality tests – MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

 • Two methods to approach the study of personality: – NOMOTHETIC or CONSTRUCT

• Two methods to approach the study of personality: – NOMOTHETIC or CONSTRUCT CENTERED (Alport, 1937) – IDIOGRAPHIC

Nomothetic approach • Is concerned with personality in an abstract sense not with any

Nomothetic approach • Is concerned with personality in an abstract sense not with any one individual. • The emphasis is on discovering how certain constructs relate or coher with others, and why.

Personality is an integrated phenomenon: • • • Needs motives mechanisms traits schemas defenses

Personality is an integrated phenomenon: • • • Needs motives mechanisms traits schemas defenses

Personality is described in terms of deviation of individual scores from the group mean….

Personality is described in terms of deviation of individual scores from the group mean…. . . • The combination of various levels of individual difference variables constitutes individuality. • Numerous scales representing a selection of personality traits are factor analized for “latent” pattern of covariation. • The larger factors are taken as fundamental dimensions of personality.

Advantages • Looking at personality in the abstract, not being grounded to any one

Advantages • Looking at personality in the abstract, not being grounded to any one person. • “genuinely scientific enterprise”. • single, measurable and comparable phenomena.

Idiographic approach • Enphasizes individuality, complexity and uniqueness of each person • individuality is

Idiographic approach • Enphasizes individuality, complexity and uniqueness of each person • individuality is the result of a unique history of trans-action between biological, (temperament and genetic constitution) and contextual factors

“The history of personality is personality” (Murray, 1938) • Not only a cross-sectional description

“The history of personality is personality” (Murray, 1938) • Not only a cross-sectional description but also an elucidation of the specific develomental constraints – possibilities – experiences – free will – chance

Various definitions various study approaches various personality theories Is personality a persistent feature? The

Various definitions various study approaches various personality theories Is personality a persistent feature? The second question. . .

Personality: relationship to Axis I disorders T I M E Onset Complication model: Prolonged

Personality: relationship to Axis I disorders T I M E Onset Complication model: Prolonged Axis I disorder produces personality changes Vulnerabily model: Psychosocial stressors penetrance personalitydefenses to different depths. When no coping responses are available an Axis I disorder ensues Pathoplasty model: Althought personality is not involved in the development of an Axis I disorder once one exist, personality influences its course

All these models. . • . . are possible and likely to be true

All these models. . • . . are possible and likely to be true for different individuals • In fact it is not impossible that all are applicabile within a single individual to some degree

Approaches to classification of PD • Categorical models Traits • Dimensional models EPQ, Cattell

Approaches to classification of PD • Categorical models Traits • Dimensional models EPQ, Cattell • Prototypal model DSM III, IV etc…

Empirical issues • Are clinical syndromes discrete entities? • Can they be clearly separated?

Empirical issues • Are clinical syndromes discrete entities? • Can they be clearly separated? • Is personality consistent? • Behaviours over time and situations rarely achieve correlations beyond the 0. 30 level, the so called “personality coefficient” (Mischel, 1979)

The third question. . . Genetics What is the matter with personality?

The third question. . . Genetics What is the matter with personality?

Demonstrating Genetic Influence in the Past • Pedigree Analysis • Twin Studies – MZ

Demonstrating Genetic Influence in the Past • Pedigree Analysis • Twin Studies – MZ vs. DZ concordance • Adoption Studies

Demonstrating Genetic Influence in the Future • Direct DNA analysis of affected individuals •

Demonstrating Genetic Influence in the Future • Direct DNA analysis of affected individuals • Gene rescue

Overview • What is a Gene? • How Genes Influence Behavior? • Research

Overview • What is a Gene? • How Genes Influence Behavior? • Research

Theory of Evolution • Charles Darwin’s On the Origins of the Species, 1859 •

Theory of Evolution • Charles Darwin’s On the Origins of the Species, 1859 • Species undergo gradual orderly change – fossil record – structural similarities among existing species – programs of selective breeding – observations of evolution in progress Darwin proposed mechanism of natural selection

Mendelian Genetics • Gregor Mendel was simultaneously studying dichotomous traits in true breeding lines

Mendelian Genetics • Gregor Mendel was simultaneously studying dichotomous traits in true breeding lines – genes – alleles – dominant/recessive – genotype/phenotype – homozygous/heterozygous

Genes • Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) • Double-Helical Structure discovered 1953 • Transcription to proteins

Genes • Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) • Double-Helical Structure discovered 1953 • Transcription to proteins

 • 23 chromosome pairs • 18, 000 - 20, 000 genes • 3

• 23 chromosome pairs • 18, 000 - 20, 000 genes • 3 Billion Bases • only 1 -2% of DNA codes for genes

How Genes Work • • DNA is made of nucleotides (A, T, C, G)

How Genes Work • • DNA is made of nucleotides (A, T, C, G) Pattern of nucleotides determines amino acid ID String of amino acids form protein Proteins constrain structure and function of organism (interacting with the environment) • Only about 1 -1. 5% is coded DNA, other 99% is poorly understood but regulates coding

How genes influence phenotype • Genes rarely cause phenotype – quantitative effects are more

How genes influence phenotype • Genes rarely cause phenotype – quantitative effects are more common • Genes determine the range of possible responses to the environment • Genes always interact with environment to determine outcome – e. g. , environment can turn on/off gene transcription

Hunt for genetic influence Phenotype Gene (one gene at a time) Gene Phenotype (now

Hunt for genetic influence Phenotype Gene (one gene at a time) Gene Phenotype (now possible) * non-coding (regulatory) DNA may also influence phenotype. I. e. , nicotine addiction and neuroticism with regulation of serotonin (HTTLPR)

Single Gene vs. Oligogenic traits • Qualitative vs. Quantitative traits • Mendelian traits/diseases are

Single Gene vs. Oligogenic traits • Qualitative vs. Quantitative traits • Mendelian traits/diseases are relatively rare – Sickle cell anemia is caused by a single point mutation (A to T) in one of the genes that specifies hemoglobin protein of red blood cells. • Most diseases, like heart disease, obesity or schizophrenia are thought to be polygenic – still important to identify particular influences

Technological Advances • Human Genome project – consensus sequence June, 2000 • Identification of

Technological Advances • Human Genome project – consensus sequence June, 2000 • Identification of polymorphic DNA – – – Single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) variations from consensus sequence in at least 1% information about disease susceptibility information about early human migrations approximately 2, 500, 000 such variations contribute to differences in phenotype

Genes, Environment & Personality

Genes, Environment & Personality

Behavioral Genetics (BG) • Interested in Determining Source of Individual Differences – Genetic Influences

Behavioral Genetics (BG) • Interested in Determining Source of Individual Differences – Genetic Influences (G) – Environmental Influences (E) – Interactions Between G and E

Is Behavioral Genetics “Deterministic”? • “Influence” versus “Determine” • Rarely is behavior "completely" genetic

Is Behavioral Genetics “Deterministic”? • “Influence” versus “Determine” • Rarely is behavior "completely" genetic • Genetic influence does not preclude environmental intervention. • Role of Environment is extremely profound / important

Genotype: • • Genetic makeup of the individual. Identical Twins Share Same Genotype Siblings

Genotype: • • Genetic makeup of the individual. Identical Twins Share Same Genotype Siblings share ½ their genotype Parents and biological children share ½ their genotype.

Phenotype: • Any Measurable, Observable Characteristic • (Examples: ) – Specific Behaviors – IQ

Phenotype: • Any Measurable, Observable Characteristic • (Examples: ) – Specific Behaviors – IQ (Note Difference between IQ and “Intelligence”) – Disorders (or symptoms) – Height, Weight, Hair Color – Personality Traits

Environment: • Anything not genetically inherited • Includes pre-natal influences – Shared Environment: Environmental

Environment: • Anything not genetically inherited • Includes pre-natal influences – Shared Environment: Environmental Effects shared by family members • Physical Structure of Home • Parental Discipline Style? ? ? – Non-shared Environment: Environmental. Effects unique to the individual -- NOT shared by family members. • Illnesses • Peers • Differing Perceptions? ? ?

Single Gene Explanations of Complex Behaviors are Unlikely to be Correct Most Complex Characteristics

Single Gene Explanations of Complex Behaviors are Unlikely to be Correct Most Complex Characteristics Influenced by Multiple Genes – Intelligence / IQ – Personality • Behaviors above usually normally distributed in population

How are Genetic Influences Investigated?

How are Genetic Influences Investigated?

Family Studies Genes Environment

Family Studies Genes Environment

Adoption Studies Biological Adoptive Genes Environment

Adoption Studies Biological Adoptive Genes Environment

Twin Studies • Monozygotic Twins • 100% genetic overlap • Dizygotic Twins • 50%

Twin Studies • Monozygotic Twins • 100% genetic overlap • Dizygotic Twins • 50% genetic overlap • Concordance rate of traits • similarity of the twin pair – both high, both low

Amazing “Lost Twins” Two Jims l married women named Linda & Betty l named

Amazing “Lost Twins” Two Jims l married women named Linda & Betty l named sons James Allan l chain smoked Salems l drove Chevrolets l had workshops in the basement, enjoyed carpentry l had a minor heart attack l gained and lost 10 pounds

Amazing “Lost Twins” Two Jims l these males were MZ twins (100% genetic overlap);

Amazing “Lost Twins” Two Jims l these males were MZ twins (100% genetic overlap); l separated at birth; l became acquainted (reunited) at age 36

Amazing “Lost Twins” L • • • and D had Ph. D’s and were

Amazing “Lost Twins” L • • • and D had Ph. D’s and were university professors drove VWs had brothers named John jogged and played racquetball gourmet cooks and had same cookbooks used same deodorant, make-up, toothpaste stored rubber bands on cupboard handles got married and divorced in same years read many of the same magazines/ books lived in Oklahoma and Chicago ordered same clothes from LL Bean had 3 identical pairs of Bass shoes

Amazing “Lost Twins” - NOT L and D l these females were totally unrelated

Amazing “Lost Twins” - NOT L and D l these females were totally unrelated (had no genetic overlap); l were reared apart in Illinois and Texas; l became acquainted at age 34 l what accounts for their amazing similarities?

Global Personality Traits • Minnesota reunited twin studies • MZ twins - 100% genetic

Global Personality Traits • Minnesota reunited twin studies • MZ twins - 100% genetic overlap • DZ twins - 50% genetic overlap • compared concordance when reared together or reared apart • heritability = 0. 39 - 0. 58 on a wide range of traits

Twin Study Method • Twins Differ with respect to genetic relatedness – MZ (Identical)

Twin Study Method • Twins Differ with respect to genetic relatedness – MZ (Identical) Twins Share 100% of Genes – DZ (Fraternal) Twins Share 50% of Genes • MZ and DZ Twins are equal with respect to shared environment • If MZs more similar than DZs, infer genetic influence • If MZs differ, assume environmental influence

Special Case: Identical Twins Reared Apart (MZA)

Special Case: Identical Twins Reared Apart (MZA)

Big 5 Trait Descriptors (OCEAN) • Openness to experience: curiosity, flexibility, unconventional attitudes •

Big 5 Trait Descriptors (OCEAN) • Openness to experience: curiosity, flexibility, unconventional attitudes • Conscientiousness: diligent, disciplined, wellorganized, dependable • Extraversion: outgoing, sociable, upbeat, assertive • Agreeableness: sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, straightforward • Neuroticism (anxiousness): anxious, irritable, self -conscious. .

Extraversion – 5 Twin Studies Britain US Swe. Austral. Men MZ. 65 DZ. 25

Extraversion – 5 Twin Studies Britain US Swe. Austral. Men MZ. 65 DZ. 25 . 57. 20 . 47. 20 . 50. 13 . 46. 15 Women MZ. 46 DZ. 18 . 62. 28 . 54. 21 . 53. 19 . 49. 14 Finl.

Neurobiological bases of personality

Neurobiological bases of personality

The Brain • Brain reaches its maximum number of synaptic connections and its greatest

The Brain • Brain reaches its maximum number of synaptic connections and its greatest metabolic activity around age 3 or 4

Brain Hemispheric Hypothesis • Left side of Brain-Role in Positive Emotions-Creative side of Brain

Brain Hemispheric Hypothesis • Left side of Brain-Role in Positive Emotions-Creative side of Brain • Right side of Brain-Role in Negative Emotions-Methodological, systematic side of Brain

Messages from Brain Travel by Nervous System • The Central Nervous System is the

Messages from Brain Travel by Nervous System • The Central Nervous System is the Communications Highway of the body • Brings help to the body based on the messages it screens from the environment

Neurons where the messages are delivered! • Bio-chemical electrical impulses create a cascade of

Neurons where the messages are delivered! • Bio-chemical electrical impulses create a cascade of effects based on the message sent to various organ receptors of the body

Neurotransmitters Impacted Too! • Not only are there physiological changes but there is altering

Neurotransmitters Impacted Too! • Not only are there physiological changes but there is altering of neurotransmitters based on messages from brain • Absence or overabundance can create whole new set of consequences

Neurotransmitters • Brain = Billions of Brain Cells-Neurons • Neurons transmit information – electrical

Neurotransmitters • Brain = Billions of Brain Cells-Neurons • Neurons transmit information – electrical conduction within nerve cells & between nerve cells • Message once carried through body cell (Axon) crosses space –Synapse to receiving cell

Types of Neurotransmitters • • Dopamine-dopaminergic system Norepinephrine-noradrenergic system Serotonin-serotonergic system Control senses, thinking,

Types of Neurotransmitters • • Dopamine-dopaminergic system Norepinephrine-noradrenergic system Serotonin-serotonergic system Control senses, thinking, perception, mood, attention, and behavior • Unfortunately at this time we can not measure amount for baseline therapeutic levels

Neurotransmitter Noradrenalin Anxiety Response to stimuli Energy Interest Motivation Serotonin Impulsivity Mood Emotion Thik

Neurotransmitter Noradrenalin Anxiety Response to stimuli Energy Interest Motivation Serotonin Impulsivity Mood Emotion Thik Sex Appetite Aggressivity Impulse Healy & Mc. Monagle J Clin Psychiatry 9 / 1999, p. 625 Dopamin

Dopamine Receptors and Personality Traits Nature, 1991 Nature, 1992

Dopamine Receptors and Personality Traits Nature, 1991 Nature, 1992

“Novelty Seeking” Gene

“Novelty Seeking” Gene

D 4 Dopamine Receptor Gene SHORT FORM LONG FORM More Extraverted Less Deliberate, Conscientious

D 4 Dopamine Receptor Gene SHORT FORM LONG FORM More Extraverted Less Deliberate, Conscientious Higher Novelty Seeking

Potential susceptibility genes Novelty Seeking • Ebstein et al (1996) Dopamine D 4 receptor

Potential susceptibility genes Novelty Seeking • Ebstein et al (1996) Dopamine D 4 receptor (D 4 DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of Novelty Seeking. Nat Genet 12: 78 -80. * Association between NS and the 7 repeat allele in the locus for DRD 4 (11 p 15. 5) in a group of 124 unrelated Israeli normal subjects. NS was assessed from the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) (Cloninger et al. , 1987).

Potential susceptibility genes Novelty Seeking • Benjamin et al (1996) Population and familial association

Potential susceptibility genes Novelty Seeking • Benjamin et al (1996) Population and familial association between the D 4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of Novelty Seeking. Nat Genet 12: 81 -84. *Association between NS and long alleles of DRD 4 gene in 315 subjects, mostly male siblings from United States. This study utilized the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R)(Costa and Mc. Crae, 1992) from which TPQ NS scores can be estimated.

Potential susceptibility genes Novelty Seeking Ebstein, R. P. , et al. , 1996. Dopamine

Potential susceptibility genes Novelty Seeking Ebstein, R. P. , et al. , 1996. Dopamine D 4 receptor (D 4 DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of Novelty Seeking. Nat Genet 12, 78 -80. Ebstein, R. P. , et al. , 1997. 5 -HT 2 C (HTR 2 C) serotonin receptor gene polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of reward dependence: interaction with dopamine D 4 receptor (D 4 DR) and dopamine D 3 receptor (D 3 DR) polymorphisms. Am J Med Gen 74, 65 -72. Jonsson, E. G. , et al. , 1997. Lack of evidence for allelic association between personality traits and the dopamine D 4 receptor gene polymorphisms. Am J Psychiatry 154, 697 -9. Ono, Y. , et al. , 1997. Association between dopamine D 4 receptor (D 4 DR) exon III polymorphism and novelty seeking in Japanese subjects. Am J Med Gen 74, 501 -3. Sander, T. , et al. , 1997. Dopamine D 4 receptor exon III alleles and variation of novelty seeking in alcoholics. Am J Med Gen 74, 4837. Vandenbergh, D. J. , et al. , 1997. No association between novelty seeking and dopamine D 4 receptor (D 4 DR) exon III seven repeat alleles in Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging participants. Mol Psychiatry 2, 417 -9. Jonsson, E. G. , et al. , 1998. Lack of Association Between Dopamine D 4 Receptor Gene and Personality Traits. Psychol Med 28, 985 -989. Noble, E. P. , et al. , 1998. D 2 and D 4 dopamine receptor polymorphisms and personality. Am J Med Gen 81, 257 -67. Staner, L. , et al. , 1998. Association between Novelty-seeking and the Dopamine D 3 receptor gene in bipolar patients - A preliminary report. Am J Med Gen 81, 192 -194. Auerbach, J. , et al. , 1999. Dopamine D 4 receptor (D 4 DR) and serotonin transporter promoter (5 -HTTLPR) polymorphisms in the determination of temperament in 2 -month-old infants. Mol Psychiatry 4, 369 -373. Bau, C. H. , et al. , 1999. Dopamine D 4 receptor gene and personality dimensions in Brazilian male alcoholics. Psych Genet 9, 139 -43. Kuhn, K. U. , et al. , 1999. Allelic variants of dopamine receptor D 4 (DRD 4) and serotonin receptor 5 HT 2 c (HTR 2 c) and temperament factors: Replication tests. Am J Med Gen 88, 168 -172. Paterson, A. D. , et al. , 1999. Dopamine D 4 receptor gene: novelty or nonsense? Neuropsychopharmacology 21, 3 -16. Benjamin, J. , et al. , 2000. Association between tridimensional personality questionnaire (TPQ) traits and three functional polymorphisms: dopamine receptor D 4 (DRD 4), serotonin transporter promoter region (5 -HTTLPR) and catechol Omethyltransferase (COMT). Mol Psychiatry 5, 96 -100. Kotler, M. , et al. , 2000. Failure to replicate an excess of the long dopamine D 4 exon III repeat polymorphism in ADHD in a familybased study. Am J Med Gen 96, 278 -281.

Molecular Genetic Studies • • • • Ebstein Benjamin Compton Ebstein Sullivan Staner Ekelund

Molecular Genetic Studies • • • • Ebstein Benjamin Compton Ebstein Sullivan Staner Ekelund Strobel Hill Kuhn Ekelund Persson Comings Lusher Suhara 1996 1997 1998 1999 1999 2000 2001 DRD 4 DRD 2 DRD 3, HTR 2 C, DRD 4 DRD 3 DRD 4 DRD 2 and DRD 4 and 5 HTT DRD 4 DRD 2 (PET study) TCI Novelty Seeking NEO Novelty Seeking TCI NS In cocaine abusers TPQ RD and P TCI NS negative TPQ NS in bipolar subjects TCI Novelty seeking TPQ novelty seeking MPQ Affective Dimension TPQ NS and RD (DRD 4) TCI Novelty Seeking NEO NS negative TCI self trascendence TCI NS in substance ab. TCI NS and DRD 2 binding

Molecular Genetic Studies • • • Herbst Persson Tsai Mitsuyasu Ronai Kusumi Bookman Jonsson

Molecular Genetic Studies • • • Herbst Persson Tsai Mitsuyasu Ronai Kusumi Bookman Jonsson Okujama Tsai 2000 2001 2002 2002 DRD 4 and 5 HTT DRD 4 alpha 1 a Na. R DRD 4 5 HT 2 A DRD 4 5 HTT Na. T TCI NS and HA negative NEO Extroversion negative TPQ Reward dependence TCI Novelty Seeking TCI negative all dim. NEO Extroversion TCI NS negative TCI NS in Japanese TPQ Harm Avoidance TPQ Reward Dependence

5 -HTT gene Promotor polymorphism s/l Serotonin transporter (5 -HTT) VNTR polymorphism (intronic)

5 -HTT gene Promotor polymorphism s/l Serotonin transporter (5 -HTT) VNTR polymorphism (intronic)

REGULATORY VARIANT OF 5 -HT TRANSPORTER A functional polymorphism in the transcriptional control region

REGULATORY VARIANT OF 5 -HT TRANSPORTER A functional polymorphism in the transcriptional control region upstream of the 5 -HTT coding sequence (5 -HTTLPR) has been reported (Heils et al. , 1996).

Anxiety-related traits short variant of the serotonin transporter gene (5 -HTT or SERT) Munafo,

Anxiety-related traits short variant of the serotonin transporter gene (5 -HTT or SERT) Munafo, 2005 Savitz, 2004 Schinka, 2004

Association studies between Harm Avoidance trait and SERTPR serotonin transporter polymorphism Author Year Sample

Association studies between Harm Avoidance trait and SERTPR serotonin transporter polymorphism Author Year Sample size Associated allele Scale used 1. (Lesch, 1996) 1996 505 Short allele TPQ 2. (Ebstein, 1997) 1997 120 None TPQ 3. (Nakamura, 1997) 1997 203 None TCI 4. (Ricketts, 1998) 1998 84 (47 Parkinson disease + 37 controls) Short allele TPQ 5. (Gelernter, 1998) 1998 322 None TPQ 6. (Kumakiri, 1999) 1999 144 None TCI 7. (Katsuragi, 1999) 1999 101 Short allele, SS genotype TPQ 8. (Osher, 2000) 2000 148 SS genotype TPQ 9. (Herbst, 2000) 2000 425 None TCI 10. (Samochowiec, 2001) 2001 127 Long allele TCI

11. (Van Gestel, 2002) 2002 219 Long allele TCI 12. (Tsai, 2002) 2002 192

11. (Van Gestel, 2002) 2002 219 Long allele TCI 12. (Tsai, 2002) 2002 192 None TPQ 13. (Jacob, 2004) 2004 601 (cluster C personality disorder patients) Short allele TPQ 14. (Samochowiec, 2004) 2004 100 None TCI 15. (Kim, 2005) 2005 211 None TCI 16. (Serretti, 2006) 2006 207 (73 major depressive disorder + 134 bipolar disorder) SS genotype associated with low NS scores TCI 17. (Rybakowski, 2006) 2006 225 (132 anorexia nervosa + 93 controls) None TCI 18. (Monteleone, 2006) 2006 219 (125 bulimia + 94 controls) Short allele TCI 19. (Becker, 2006) 2006 384 None J-TCI (a) SERTPR and Intron 2 VNTR serotonin transporter polymorphisms

Overview of associations between temperament factors and candidate genes (symbols refer to published studies:

Overview of associations between temperament factors and candidate genes (symbols refer to published studies: + positive study, - negative study) HARM AVOIDANCE SEROTONIN 5 -HT 1 A + 5 -HT 2 A ++---- 5 -HT 3 A + NOVELTY SEEKING REWARD DEPENDE NCE ++---- + 5 -HT 2 C DOPAMINE MONOAMINE OXIDASE A CATECHOL-OMETHYLTRANSFERASE CYTOCHROME P 450 + PERSIST ENCE + HTTLPR ++++++++++ +++----------- + DRD 2 ++--- DRD 3 - ++---- DRD 4 ++-+ +++++++++---------- + + MAO-A +--- +- + + ++++ + COMT CYP 2 D 6 EGF NOREPINEPHRINE TRANSPORTER NET +-+ + CYP 2 C 19 EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR + + - +

An integrative perspective • Both the nomothetic and idiographic perspectives are unsatisfying • Individuals

An integrative perspective • Both the nomothetic and idiographic perspectives are unsatisfying • Individuals cannot be made so individual that they become ineffable • The individual is a singular phenomenon only partially accessible to science and its methods • We are called on not merely to record behaviour in this or that domain, but to explain it