What is Memory The Processes of encoding storage

What is Memory? The Processes of encoding, storage & retrieval

What is Memory? • The encoding, storage and later retrieval of a response that was previously acquired. • The Learning Process is made up of Two Stages: Acquisition & Retention

Acquisition • Acquisition – The initial learning of information. • Affected by… • 1. Attention Process • 2. Degree of Motivation • 3. Preparedness of the Learner • 4. Type of Practice Followed • 5. Kind of Material to be Learned • 6. Transfer of Training (Application)

Situational Factors that Influence Acquisition Attention • Sensory Gating – process by which the brain sends Sensory Gating messages to some of the sensory systems to decrease the amount of information they must deal with. – Example: Feeling of clothes, “white” noise • Parallel vs. Sequential Attention (parallel sensory processing) – Parallel – Useful only when receiving new info. Brain processes several different stimuli simultaneously. – Sequential Attention – Higher Level, treat each piece of info separately in order. o

Factors Influencing Attention • Feature Extraction (Decoding) – Sensory System Feature Extraction selects which incoming stimuli to process then establishes meaning for these stimuli. – Example: “r” is different from “f” • Characteristics of the Learner: Characteristics of the Learner – Individual Differences: development, motivation, expression of emotions • Preparedness – Time & Place. Example: Chimps Preparedness can’t speak but are prepared for signing. • The Learning Curve: Performance is not always The Learning Curve an accurate indicator of learning.

Methods of Acquisition 1. Overlearning – any repetition over the point of acquisition – Follows the law of diminishing returns – more is not always better. 2. Knowledge of Results: Feedback – any info about the effect of Feedback a response. – Leads to faster acquisition of new material – Immediate feedback is more beneficial than delayed 3. Distribution of Practice – Study - Rest - Study – Rest. (Take Breaks) 4. Whole-Part Distribution – Deciding whether to learn the entire amount of material as a whole or divide it into parts to learn. Depends on the task. 5. Active vs. Passive Approach – The more involved (active) you are in your learning the better you will remember it. 6. Primacy & Recency Effects – Tend to remember info that came first and last. 7. Content – We are better able to remember info that we can make associations to and infer meaning from.

The Information. Processing Model

Information Processing Model • Encoding - getting information into the memory system • Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time • Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage

How is Our Memory Like a Computer? • Both encode, store, and retrieve data • We can activate information from our long term memory (hard drives) • Information on the screen disappears if not used right away – short term memory

Encoding: Serial Position Effect

Serial Position Effect • The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list • Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list • Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

Primacy/Recency Effect or Serial Position Effect (From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

Encoding: Spacing Effect

Spacing Effect • The tendency for distributed practice to yield better retention than is achieved through massed practice (cramming)

Distributed Practice • Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time • Usually enhances the recalling of the information

Massed Practice • Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming) • Not as effective as distributed practice

Encoding: Encoding Meaning

Semantic Encoding • The encoding of meaning • Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall

Self-Reference Effect • The enhanced semantic encoding of information that is personally relevant • Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life

Semantic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Acoustic Encoding • Encoding information based on the sounds of the information

Acoustic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Visual Encoding • Encoding information based on the images of the information

Visual Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Encoding: Organizing Information

Chunking • Organizing information into meaningful units • More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.

Encoding: Mnemonic Devices

Mnemonic Device • A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts • “Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale • “People say you could have odd lots of good years” as a way to remember how to spell “psychology”

Method of Loci • A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to be remembered with imaginary places

Peg-Word System • A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized • Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

Peg Word System

Categorical Clustering • Grouping items you want to remember by categories • Example: Grocery list organized by aisles or food category.

Acronyms • Set of letters from a word or phrase in which each letter stands of a certain other word or concept. • Example: HOMES = Names of the Great Lakes

Acrostics • Initial letters that taken in order form a word or phrase that trigger what you want to remember. • Example: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (Math) • Example: Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge (Music)

Interactive Images • Link a set of isolated words by creating visual representations for the words and then picturing interactions among the items. • Example: If you had to remember a list of random things like an aardvark, pencil, table and book picture the aardvark sitting on a table holding pencil in its claws and writing in a book.

Keyword System • Learning isolated words by linking sounds and meanings together. • Example: Elvis shook his pelvis – Stalactite holds tight to the ceiling – Fibula lies beneath the Tibula – Tibula is on top of the fibula

Do Mnemonics Work? • Watch this 8 minute video on how the world’s best memory competitors use mnemonics.

Storage

Three Storage Systems • Three distinct storage systems : – Sensory Memory – Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory) – Long-Term Memory

Storage: Sensory Memory

Sensory Memory • The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system – Iconic store – visual information, ½ second – Echoic store – sound information, 2 -3 seconds • Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

Storage: Short-Term Memory

Short-Term Memory • Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten • Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information • Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed • Also called “working memory”

Storage: Long-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory • The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system • Holds memories without conscious effort

Take out a piece of paper Name the Seven Dwarves

Retrieval

Retrieval • The process of getting information out of memory storage • Two forms of retrieval – Recall – Recognition

Recall • A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier • Example: Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short answer test questions test recall • Recall Tests will do THIS to your head.

Recognition • A measure of memory in which a person must identify items learned earlier • Example: Multiple choice and matching test questions test recognition

Turn your paper over. Now pick out the seven dwarves. Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

Seven Dwarves Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

Retrieval: Context

Context Effect • The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information

Context

Retrieval: State Dependency

State Dependent Memory • The enhanced ability to retrieve information when the person is in the same physical and emotional state they were in when they encoded the information • The retrieval state is congruent with the encoding state

Let’s Review The Three Processes of Memory

Encoding • The processing of information into the memory system. Typing info into a computer Getting a girls name at a party

Storage • The retention of encoded material over time. Pressing Ctrl S and saving the info. Trying to remember her name when you leave the party.

Retrieval • The process of getting the information out of memory storage. Finding your document and opening it up. Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure).

Memory Construction- itinerary • Misinformation Effect • Children’s Memories – Hypnosis (in general), drugs, therapy – Traumatic events – Rosanne Barr • Eyewitness Testimony – Picking Cotton • • • Environmental Contexts &Internal Emotional States Déjà vu Types of Amnesia – Ten Second Tom

Misinformation effect • Misinformation effect*- when after Misinformation effect*exposure to subtle misinformation, many people misremember. • Memories We construct our memories, using both stored and new information. • are not stored as exact copies, • In many experiments, people have witnessed an event, received or not received misleading information about it, and then taken a memory test.

Misinformation effect • Consider two witnesses to a car accident. (Billy and Sally). • Billy is asked by a policeman, “How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other vehicle” • Sally is asked by another policeman, “How fast was the car going when it bumped into the other vehicle. ” • Billy’s constructed memory will increase in numbers in comparison from Sally’s. Influenced by the descriptive words “smashed” and “bumped”.

Misinformation effect can be caused by: 1. Leading questions 2. Influence of people filling in “gaps” in memory 3. Other testimony 4. Repeated imagining and rehearsing nonexistent events cause false memories (imagination inflation). 5. Source Amnesia*- attribute to the wrong source an event the we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Ex. Dreaming an event and trying to determine if it happened or it was a dream)

Psychologists Questions on Misinformation Effect: 1. When are people susceptible to misinformation? a. b. 2. Who is susceptible to misinformation? a. b. c. 3. Time (discrepancy detection principle) Subtle exposure Young children Memory performance rises up to the age of 20 Falls sharply at the age of 65 What happens to the original memory? a. After much research it is commonly believed that misinformation does impair the original details of memory. 4. Do people genuinely believe the misinformation? a. It is believed that people report misinformation confidently because they have the need to be “good” at recalling events.

Children’s Memories • Preschool Children are sensitive to suggestion, and their recollections of sexual abuse may be prone to error. (can be given suggestive interviewing techniques) – Day Care Cases in 1980’s- mass abuse. Falsely reported by children who were influenced by the interviewers. • Innocent people have been falsely convicted of abuse that never happened, and true abusers have sued the controversy over recovered memories to avoid punishment.

Repressed and Recovered Memories • Psychologists agree that: – Abuse happens and can leave lasting scars – Some innocent people have been falsely convicted of abuse that never happened and some true abusers have used the controversy over recovered memories to avoid punishment – Forgetting isolated good and bad memories triggered by some memory cue is commonplace – Infantile amnesia-inability to recall memories from the first three years of life makes recovery of very early childhood memories very unlikely. – Both real and false memories cause stress and suffering.

Hypnosis and Traumatic experiences • Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or drugs or therapy are especially unreliable. Especially for children as are memories of things happening before age 3. (infantile amnesia) • Traumatic experiences are usually vividly remembered, not banished into an active but inaccessible unconscious.

Eyewitness Memory • Now turn over the True False 8 -9 sheet on Eyewitness Memory sheet and complete it. On statement 9, 28 experts indicated that the “reverse is probably true. ” • All the statements on the handout except statement 9 as true.

Environmental contexts and internal emotional states on retrieval. • State Dependent Memories- tendency to recall information best in the same emotional state (mood) as when the information was learned. • Context Dependent Memories- being in a context similar to one we’ve been in before may trick us into subconsciously retrieving an earlier experience.

What is déjà vu? • The term deja vu is French and means, literally, "already seen. " Those who have experienced the feeling describe it as an overwhelming sense of familiarity with something that shouldn't be familiar at all. • Younger people experience Deja vu more frequently, then the elder. • Deja vu has been firmly associated with temporallobe epilepsy. It can occur just prior to a temporallobe seizure. People suffering a seizure of this kind can experience deja vu during the actual seizure activity or in the moments between convulsions. • It could be simple fantasy or wish fulfillment, while some psychiatrists ascribe it to a mismatching in the brain that causes the brain to mistake the present for the past.

Types of Amnesia (memory loss) • Infantile Amnesia- inability of adults to remember the earliest years of their childhood. The amnesia generally covers events from birth until around three years old. • Retrograde Amnesia -someone will be unable to recall events that occurred before the development of amnesia before • Anterograde Amnesia - loss of the ability to create memories after the event that caused the amnesia occurs. (Such as Ten Second Tom)