WASTE GENERATION RATES Materials Mass Balance Analysis d

WASTE GENERATION RATES Materials Mass Balance Analysis: d. M/dt = ∑Min - ∑MOut + rw Rate of accumulation of material within the system boundary Rate of flow of material = into the system boundary Rate of - material out of the system boundary Rate of generation of waste material + within the system boundary 1

WASTE GENERATION RATES Material Mass Balance Analysis Out. Flow (combustion gases and ashes) Inflow Outflow (materials) Stored materials (raw materials, products solid waste) Out flow (Solid wastes, solids in wastewater) Outflow (Products) System boundary 2

WASTE GENERATION RATES Question A cannery receives on a given day 12 tons of raw produce, 5 ton of cans, 0. 5 tons of cartons and 0. 3 tons of miscellaneous materials. Of the 12 tons of raw produce, 10 ton become products, 1. 2 tons end up as product waste, which is fed to cattle, and the remainder is discharged with the wastewater from plant. Four tons of the cans are stored internally for future use, and the remainder is used to package the product. About 3 percent 3

WASTE GENERATION RATES Cont Question of the cans used are damaged. Stored separately, the damaged cans are recycled. The cartons are used for packaging the canned product, expect for 5 percent that are damaged and subsequently separated for recycling. Of the miscellaneous materials, 25 percent is stored internally for future use; 50 percent becomes waste paper, of which 35 percent is separated for recycling with the remainder being discharged as mixed waste; and 25 percent becomes a mixture of solid waste materials. 4

WASTE GENERATION RATES Cont Question Assume the materials separated for recycling and disposal are collected daily. Prepare a material balance for the cannery on this day and a material flow diagram accounting for all of the materials. Also determine the amount of waste per ton of product. 5

WASTE GENERATION RATES Solutions 1. On the given day, the cannery receives the following: 12 tons of raw produce 5 tons of cans 0. 5 tons of cartons 0. 3 tons of miscellaneous materials. 6

Solutions Cont WASTE GENERATION RATES 2. As a result of internal activity a) 10 tons of products is produced, 1. 2 tons of produce waste is generated, and the remainder of products is discharged with the waste water b) 4 tons of cans are stored and the remainder is used, of which 3 percent are damaged c) 0. 5 tons of cartons are used of which 3 % are damaged d) 25% of miscellaneous material is stored; 50% become paper waste, of which 35 percent is separated and recycled, with the remainder disposed of as mixed solid waste; the remaining 25 percent of the miscellaneous materials are disposed of as mixed waste. 7

WASTE GENERATION RATES 3. Determine the required quantities a) Waste generated from raw produce i) Solid waste fed to cattle = 1. 2 ton (1089 kg) ii) Waste produce discharge with wastewater=(12 -10 -1. 2)tons=0. 8 T(726 kg) b) Cans i) Damaged and recycled = (0. 03)(5 -4) ton = 0. 03 ton(27 kg) ii) Used for production of product = (1 -0. 03)ton -0. 97 ton(880 kg) c) Miscellaneous materials i) Amount stored =(0. 25)(0. 3 ton) = 0. 075 ton (68 kg) ii) Paper separated and recycled = (0. 50)(0. 35)(0. 3 ton) = 0. 053 ton (48 kg) iii) Mixed waste =[(0. 3 -0. 075)-0. 053] ton = 0. 172 ton ( 156 kg) 8

WASTE GENERATION RATES Solutions Cont 3. Determine the required quantities e) Total Weight of product = (10 + 0. 97 + 0. 485) ton = 11. 455 ton (10, 392 kg) f) Total Material stored = ( 4 + 0. 0075) ton = 4. 075 ton ( 3696 kg) 4. Prepare a material balance and flow diagram for the cannery for the day a) Amount of material stored= inflow-outflow –waste generation 9

WASTE GENERATION RATES Solutions Cont 4. b) The material balance quantities i) Material stored = (4. 0 +0. 075)ton = 4. 075 ii) Material Input = (12. 0 +5. 0 +0. 5 +0. 3)ton =17. 8 iii) Material Output =(10. 0 + 0. 97+0. 485+1. 2+0. 03+0. 015+0. 053) =12. 753 ton iv) Waste Generation=(0. 8 + 0. 172)ton v) The final material balance is 4. 075 = 17. 8 – 12. 753 -0. 972 (verified) 10

WASTE GENERATION RATES Solutions Cont c) Material balance flow diagram 12 T raw Produce 5 T Cans 0. 5 T Cartons 11. 455 T Product 1. 2 T Waste Fed to Cattle 4. 075 T Stored Internally 0. 3 Miscellaneous 0. 8 T waste produce discharge with wastewater 0. 03 T Can Recycled 0. 015 T Carton Recycled 0. 053 T paper Recycled 0. 172 T mixed waste 11

WASTE GENERATION RATES Material Mass Balance Analysis 5. Determine the amount of waste per ton of product: a) Recyclable material = (1. 2 +0. 03 + 0. 015 + 0. 053)ton/11. 4. 55 ton= = 0. 11 tonrecycle material/ton product b) Mixed waste = (0. 8 + 0. 172)ton/11. 455 ton = 0. 085 ton mixed waste/ton product 12

Solid Waste Collection and Transport

1. On-site Handling, On-site Storage : Curb Collection, Direct haul, transfer station 2. Collection services: types and methods 3. Vehicle and labor requirements 4. Types of Collection systems (hauled container system, stationary container system)

ON-SITE HANDLING: - Activities associated with the handling of SW until they are placed in the containers used for storage before collection ON-SITE STORAGE: Factors considered: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Types of containers used Container Locations Public health Aesthetics Methods of Collection

Factors considered: i) Types of Containers: - Depend on: - characteristics of SW collected – E. g. Large storage containers (Domestic SW: flats/apartment) – Containers at curbs – Large containers on a roller (Commercial/Industrial) • Collection frequency • Space available for the placement of containers - Residential; refuse bags (7 -10 litres) - Rubbish bins - 20 -30 litres - Large mechanical containers - more commonly used to cut costs (reduce labor, time , & collection costs) - must be standardized to suit collection equipment.

ii) Container Locations: - side/rear of house alleys special enclosures (apartment/condos) Basement (apts. in foreign countries)/ newer complexes iii) Public Health: - relates to on-time collection to avoid the spread of diseases by vectors, etc. iv) Aesthetics: - must be pleasing to the eye (containers must be clean, shielded from public’s view).

v)Collection of SW - 60 -80 percent of total SWM costs. - labor and capital intensive. - Major problems: – Poor building layouts - e. g. squatters – Road congestion - time cost, leachate, transport costs. – Physical infrastructure – Old containers used (leaky/ damaged) – Absence of systematic methods (especially at apartments, markets with large wst. volume).

Collection of SW(cont. ) • Collections were made by: 1. Municipal/ District Council 2. Private firm under contract to municipal 3. Private firm contract with private residents

TYPES OF COLLECTION: 1. Municipal Collection Services: a. Residential: i. Curb (Kerb-side), alley, and backyard collection (100 -120 litres) – – Quickest/ economical Crew: 1 driver + 1 or 2 collectors No need to enter property Most common

TYPES OF COLLECTION (Cont. ) Set-out, set back: - Collectors have to enter property - Set out crew carries full containers from resident storage location to curb/ alley before collection vehicle arrives. - Collection crew load their refuse into vehicle - Set-back crew return the container to storage area. iii. House-to-house collection where refuse bags used in 20 -30 liter bins. ii.

iii. High-rise apartment or flats, specially designed chutes or a communal storage or roll-on-roll-offs (RORO’s). iv. Future trend: mechanically-equipped trucks. b) Commercial-Industrial Collection Services ( > 12 m 3 ) i. Large movable and stationary containers ii. Large stationary compactors (to form bales)

Collection Frequency: - residential areas : everyday/ once in 2 days - commercial : daily - food waste - max. period should not exceed : • the normal time for the accumulation of waste to fill a container • the time for fresh garbage to putrefy and emit fouls odor • the length of fly-breeding cycle ( < 7 days).

Factors Affecting SW Collection Productivity: a. Service Level Related: collection point, frequency, waste material b. Route related: Containers, Distance, constraints, topography, delays, road conditions c. Collection Methodology Related/Climate Related: Crew size, collection procedures, wind, rain.

Waste Collection Models Determination of Vehicle and Labor Requirements.

LAY-OUT OF ROUTES: 4 -Step Process 1. Prepare location maps: - with pick-up point locations - number of containers - collection frequency - estimated quantities (in the case of SCS with self-loading compactors).

2. Data summaries: - Estimate of waste each day (from pick-up locations) - ( for SCS - number of locations for each pickup cycle). 3. Lay preliminary collection routes (from different stations). - Route should connect all pick-up locations + last location be nearest to disposal site). 4. Develop balanced route - determine haul distance for each route - Determine labor requirements per day, check against available work times per day - draw master map.

Selecting Collection Equipment: - Changing needs and advances in technology - Trends - increase use of computer-aided equipment and electronic control (e. g. on-board computers for monitoring truck performance and collection performance). - Most prevalent: compactor trucks (equipped with hydraulically powered rams that can compact wastes to increase payload). - Open and close non-compacting trucks: o Inexpensive to purchase or maintain o Inefficient for most collection application (small amt. of waste, have to lift high to dump into the truck) o Suitable for yard, bulky wastes, and recyclable materials, for small communities and rural areas.

Factors to consider in selection of vehicle: 1. Waste quantities 2. Truck body or container capacity a. Regulations regarding truck size and weight, b. To maximize the amount of wastes that can be collected while remaining within legal weights for the overall vehicle. 3. Consult with collection crew and drivers. 4. Loading location/ Location of container - determine the type of vehicles to be used: Front-loading; Side-loading or rear-loading compactor truck. 5. Physical characteristics of the collection routes/ road width - e. g. wide street - use side-loading automatic collection system; for narrow urban streets - use rear loaders.

Factors to consider in selection of vehicle(Cont. ): 6. Residential, commercial or industrial: HCS for large buildings (e. g. apt. , industries, etc. ) 7. Safety and comfort - to minimize danger to crews. – Truck turning radius - be as short as possible. – Water tightness - to prevent leakages. – Speed - wide range of speed.

TRANSFER OF MUNICIPAL WASTE - More common as the distance of landfill sites becomes greater - Most common in larger metropolitan areas. - Variance in types, size, and degree of sophistication - E. g. open-air stations or enclosed in a building (newer stations).

Advantages of Transfer stations: - better haul roads for collection vehicles (usually paved - reducing damages to trucks and delay). - greater traffic control (avoid traffic jams/congestion or litter + safety to children). - fewer truck on the sanitary landfill haul routes( reduction ratio of from 3 (trucks) : 1 (transfer haul) or 5: 1). - improved landfill operating efficiency (fewer trucks mean better traffic control). - Lower overall haul cost (reduction in no. of drivers/crew).

Criteria for Transfer Location: - Near the collection area served (to minimize collection crew time for haul to the transfer station). - Accessible to major haul routes (public acceptance and economics - lower transfer haul cost)). - Adequate land area to provide isolation (to handle traffic flow). - Suitable Zoning (commercial or industrial) - Served by utilities (water, sanitary sewer, storm drainage, electricity)

Station Concepts 1. Pit a) Direct Dump b) Compaction Pit: – Collection vehicles unloaded wastes into a large pit. – Wastes are then pushed to an open-top transfer trailer by a tractor. – The pit - as storage during peak periods. – Compaction of bulk items made by the tractor in the pit.

2. Direct Dump: Ø collection vehicles dump directly into open-top transfer trailer Ø Large hoppers direct the waste into the transfer trailers. Ø Very large transfer trailers are used (due to minimal compaction). Ø Efficient - no intermediate handling required (direct from vehicle to transfer trailer).

3. Compaction: i) Hopper type compaction station : waste drop by gravity into a compactor - packs the waste into the trailers. ii) Push pit compactor station: a large hydraulically operated blade moves the waste to the stationary packer - then packs the waste into the trailers.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Design Alternatives: Option Advantages Disadvantages 1. Tipping floor, open-top Little site work inv. trailer · Low bldg. Cost • Large tipping floor where Can separate collection vehicles unload recyclables • Dozers organize and push waste into open-top trailers Not as eff. as other syst. For large vol. of waste 2. Pit, Open-top Trailer • Coll. Veh. unload directly into a large pit · • Tractor w/ dozer or l/filltype blade organizes the wst. & pushes loads into Requires 3 -level facility (considerable amount of site work & capital investment open-top transfer trailers Reduced transfer time (coll. veh. unload while loading & transfer operations still going on) · Pit serves as a storage · Efficient system for high volumes of wst. Can sep. recyclables

Option Advantages Disadvantages 3. Direct dump, open-top trailer • Coll. veh. dump loads directly into open-top trailers via large hoppers • Stationary or mobile clamshell equip. 1. Can be used to distribute the wst. in trailer · 2. No intermediate handling of the wst. inv. 3. Increasing efficiency 4. Fac. shutdown rare 5. No complicated equip. inv. 1. May req. separate trailerpacking machines (in case of large uncompacted wst) 2. Req. additional tipping flr/storage space. 3. Coll. veh. not indep. of transfer vehicle loading).

Option Advantages Disadvantages 4. Hopper-type Compaction • Wst. is gravity-fed via hopper into stationary compactors that compacts the wst before or while entering the trailer · 1. Efficient for small capacity demand 2. If compactor fails, no alternative method of loading · Trucks may line up waiting to unload because of limited hopper size.

Option Advantages Disadvantages 5. 1. Large compactor can usually handle all types of wst. + large bulky wst. 2. Pit acts storage area during peak arrival. 1. Large capital investment. 2. Facil. operations dep. on operation of the compactor. • • • Push-pit Compaction Coll. veh. dump loads into large steel or concrete pits. Large hydraulic blade moves the wst. to compactor charging box. Compactor packs the wst. Into trailer.

Option Advantages Disadvantages 6. Container may be equipped with compactor to handle lighter materials. 1. Bulky and large materials create problem w. small compactor. 2. Operation dep. on functioning compactor • • Stationary Compactor, roll-off container Low-vol. operations (e. g. rural drop-off centers). Refuse unloaded directly into container.

Option Advantages 7. Track and topload. • Tracked compactor followed by loading in opentop trailers. Efficient for larger facilities (> 300 t/d) Disadvantag es

PROCESS OPTIONS AT TRANSFER STATIONS: 1. To prepare waste for transfer haul and subsequent disposal Baling: › › › - practiced in the US since 1960’s reduces haul cost a more controlled operation at the landfill require lower cover material density 1500 -2000 lb/yd 3 may have wire ties or may not be tied. Requires little or no separation of wastes.

2. Shredding: Shredders are used. - Handles bulky wastes (furniture, tree limbs, etc. ) Transport - use enclosed transfer trailers. Wastes have good compaction characteristics requires small trailers.

HAZARDOUS WASTE

DEFINITION • Hazardous waste means wastes (solids, sludges, liquids and container gases) other than radioactive (and infectious) wastes, by reason of their chemical activity of toxic, explosive, corrosive or other characteristics cause danger or likely will cause danger to health or the environment, whether alone or when coming into contact with other waste - United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (1985)

Hazardous waste is any waste or combination of wastes which pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or living organisms because such wastes are lethal, non-degradable, persistent in nature, biologically magnified or otherwise cause or tent to cause detrimental cumulative effects. - United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Toxic and hazardous wastes are wastes or combination of wastes that pose a significant present or potential hazard to human health or living organisms, and are included in ‘Scheduled Wastes’ - Department of Environment (DOE), (1995) There are 107 categories of ‘Scheduled Wastes’ and these include wastes generated mainly from petroleum and oil refineries, pharmaceutical, rubber processing, chemical and electronics and semiconductor industries

• Classification of hazardous waste – Two basic approaches • Listing approach • Criteria approach • Listing approach – Listing by source • Candidate waste streams are reviewed by source and segregated into hazardous and nonhazardous categories

• Advantages – Ease of implementation and enforcement – Once wastes have been designated, the wastes can be readily categorised by source. – Generators and regulators can quickly determine the status of waste without performing any test – Cost associated with identification of hazardous waste is low • Disadvantages – Ignores the reality that waste from two generically similar sources may have greatly different properties – Does not accommodate new wastes or combination of wastes – Periodic evaluation of wastes to reaffirm or change designation is necessary

• Listing by pure compound – Selected list of hazardous compound is developed – Wastes that contain any of these compounds are designated hazardous • Advantages – Data on most of the selected compounds are readily available in the literature – Literature data is used and waste analysis is reduced to chemical characterization – Costly hazard testing is eliminated • Disadvantages – Its assigns properties of single constituent to a complex waste mixture, thus fails to account for interactions between various constituents – alter the hazardous nature – Mixture of non-hazardous compounds may react to produce a hazardous product in a waste

Criteria approach • Quantitative approach • May be applied directly to wastes or to chemicals for selection of entries in the compound list • Based on comparison of specific material characteristics to a selected threshold value • Threshold exceeded – material is hazardous • Advantages – Can be applied to future waste as well as currently generated – Test are run – pass or fail based on intrinsic properties • Disadvantages – Cost and time associated with testing

Characteristics of hazardous waste • Indicative criteria: – Toxicity – Flammability – Reactivity – Corrosiveness

Toxicity • Ability of a waste to produce injury upon contact with a susceptible site in or on the body of a living organism. • Acutely or chronically toxic • Acute toxicity – effects within hours of exposure of inhalation or after a single dermal or oral dose • Chronically toxic – contain materials that are bioaccumulated in the food chain or cause irreversible damage – Gradually to a final unacceptable level – E. g. heavy metal and halogenated aromatic

Flammability Pose both acute handling hazards and latent disposal hazards Handling involves safety hazards to personnel at the site of origin, during transport and disposal sites Latent hazard – potential damage caused by unintentional or spontaneous combustion of flammable residue at disposal sites Flammable wastes – solvents, oils, pesticides, plasticizers and complex organic sludge Flash point – min T at which liquid produces a sufficient concentration of vapour above it, forms an ignitable mixture with air Auto-ignition temperature - lowest T at which a material will spontaneously combust in a normal atm, without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark

Reactivity • Can threaten life and property in an acute as well latent way • Handling, shipping or disposal operation can initiate violent reaction – explosion • Reactive materials buried in a landfill may detonate later when the conditions are appropriate • Extreme hazard group of materials includes: – Materials that can be detonated by electrostatic charge – Oxidising materials e. g. chlorates, perchlorates, bromates, peroxides, nitrates, permanganates – Self reactive materials – Materials capable of autopolymerisation – Primary explosive – detonated by friction, impact, shock, heat – Materials that can react violently with water or air

Corrosiveness • Ability of one agent to eat away or erode another material through chemical action • Largely evidenced during handling and storage • Release of the corrosive material itself and opportunity for the corrosive material to release other hazardous wastes • Materials considered corrosive: – Aqueous material whose p. H ≤ 2 – Aqueous materials whose p. H ≥ 12 – Liquids which corrode steel at a rate > 0. 625 cm/year at 55ºC

Hazardous waste in Malaysia • • The Department of Environment (DOE) is empowered under the Provision of the Environmental Quality Act 1974 to control and prevent pollution and protect and enhance the quality of the environment Regulations dealing with hazardous waste management: 1. Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulations, 1989 2. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities) Regulations, 1989 3. Environmental Quality Act (Prescribed Premises)(Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities) Order, 1989

Regulations specified following requirements: a) As far as practicable, scheduled wastes shall be rendered innocuous before disposal b) Generation of scheduled waste shall be reduced using best practicable means c) Waste generators to notify the DOE of any scheduled wastes generated and keep up to date inventory of scheduled waste generated, treated and disposed of d) Scheduled wastes may be stored, recovered and treated within the premises of a waste generator e) Land farming, incineration, disposal, off-site recovery, offsite storage and off-site treatment shall only be carried out at prescribed premises licensed by DOE f) Durable waste containers with clear labels shall be used and storage of wastes shall be proper and adequate g) Waste generators shall conform to the requirements of the consignment note system when transporting wastes to ensure it reaches the approved destination and are carried out by licensed transporters h) Waste generators shall provide information to the transporters regarding the nature of the wastes and action to be taken in case of accidents

Based on the physicochemical and toxicological properties of the contents and using the First Schedule of the Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989 as a guideline, hazardous wastes can be broadly classified according to the various chemical groups as follows (listing approach) a) Mineral oils (machine and cutting oils) pitch and tar (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) Haloganated organic solvents e. g. trichloroethylene Photographic developers e. g. paraphenylendiamine Alcohols e. g. methanol Aromatic solvents e. g. benzene, toluene Ketones e. g. acetone Formaldehyde Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) Mineral acids and alkalis Heavy metals Arsenic Cyanide Herbicide and pesticides Asbestos-cement fibres Biological wastes b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n) o)

Site for a Hazardous Waste Management Facility Site selection Located at a site that by virtue of its natural features and land use setting provides a high degree of protection to public health and the environment Proximity to sources 3 phases Phase I – Regional screening (to search areas) Phase II – Examination of search areas (to identify candidate sites) Phase III – Detailed evaluation of candidate sites (for final site selection)

• Site and subsurface characterization – Required to know what lies on and beneath the site of a hazardous waste management facility – Involves a number of disciplines including geology, hydrology, chemistry, biology, geotechnical engineering – Insufficient or incorrect site and subsurface characterization can lead to inadequacies in design, engineering and/or siting of hazardous waste management facilities – Subsurface characterization must clearly define the site’s 3 -dimensional geologic and hydrogeologic characteristics – Investigations must show the influence of site and subsurface conditions on the performance of existing and planned hazardous waste management system – Investigations must provide information on site history, groundwater flow direction, water quality and quantity, potential contaminant migration

Clinical waste Disposal wastes arising from health care establishments (public and private) can have an effect on The health and human being The environment Issues relating to public safety Guidelines Environmental Quality Act of 1974 which administered by DOE Safety and health features in clinical waste management recommended by Ministry of Health, Malaysia in order to protect health of staff, waste collection workers, patients and general public In Malaysia, clinical waste is classified as scheduled waste under the Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations, 1989 1. N 251 Discarded drugs except living, vaccines and euphoric compounds 2. N 261 Pathogenic and clinical wastes and quarantined materials 3. N 281 A mixture of scheduled wastes 4. N 282 A mixture of scheduled and non-scheduled wastes

• Consideration to manage clinical wastes effectively: – – – – – Generation and minimization Source separation and segregation Identification and labeling Handling and storage Safe transportation Treatment Disposal of residues (including emissions) Occupational safety and health Public and environmental health Research and development into improved technologies and environmentally friendly practices

• A common and internationally accepted definition for waste generated in healthcare facilities – Healthcare wastes – hazardous healthcare wastes – Infectious healthcare wastes – Sharps

Identification, classification and waste group Wastes from hospitals and healthcare establishments can be categorized into: ◦ Clinical waste ◦ Radioactive waste ◦ Chemical waste ◦ Pressurized containers ◦ General waste Clinical wastes are containing: ◦ Human or animal tissue ◦ Blood or body fluids ◦ Excretions ◦ Drugs ◦ Pharmaceutical products ◦ Soiled swabs or dressings ◦ Syringes, needles, sharps ◦ Any waste that has come into contact or been mixed with any of the above types of wastes ◦ Waste unless rendered safe may prove hazardous to any person coming into contact with it

Major classification of clinical waste and its recommended management guidance in Malaysia Description Waste management guidance 1. Blood and body fluid waste i. soil surgical dressings ii. material other than reusable linen from cases of infectious diseases iii. pathological waste Special requirement on the management from the viewpoint of infection prevention. This category must be incinerated completely in an appropriate incinerator. 2. Waste posing of injury (sharps) All objects and materials which closely linked with healthcare activities and pose a potential risk of infection and injury Collected and managed separately from other waste. the collection containers must be puncture resistant and leak tight. This category has to be disposed/ destroyed completely 3. Infectious waste Clinical waste arising from laboratories (e. g. pathology, haematology, blood transfusion, microbiology, histology) and post mortem rooms, other than waste included in category 1 waste Special requirement on the management from the viewpoint of infection prevention. This category of waste must always be incinerated completely in an appropriate incinerator

4. Pharmaceutical and Cytotoxic Pharmaceutical Wastes i. Pharmaceuticals which have become unusable for the following reasons: * expiry date exceeded after the packaging has been opened or the ready-to-use preparation prepared by the user, or use is not possible for other reason (e. g. call back campaign) ii. Wastes arising in the use, anufacture and preparation of, and in the oncological treatment of patients with, pharmaceuticals with a cytotoxic effect Class I – pharmaceuticals such as chamomile tea, cough syrup and the like which pose no hazard during collection, intermediate storage and waste management: managed jointly with municipal wastes Class II – pharmaceuticals which pose a potential hazard when used improperly by unauthorized persons: managed in an appropriate waste disposal facility Class III – heavy metal-containing unidentifiable pharmaceuticals: managed in an appropriate waste disposal facility

5. Other infectiouswastes All healthcare waste known or clinically assessed by a medical practitioner or veterinary/surgeon to have the potential of transmitting infectious agents to humans or animals. Used disposable bed-pan liners, urine containers, incontinence pads and stoma bags Disposed of in a hazardous waste incineration plant

Waste segregation • Responsibility of nursing and clinical staff to ensure that segregation of clinical waste is carried out at source • All clinical waste deposited only in yellow bags • Sharps in sharp bins only • Colour coding – Black – general wastes – Yellow – clinical wastes for incineration only – Light blue – wastes for autoclaving or equivalent treatment before ultimate disposal

• Labeling and marking – Writing the information on the bag or container – Using pre-printed tape – Using pre-printed self adhesive address labels supplied on a peel off roll – Tie on tag label, with the information written on them – Self locking plastic tags, pre-printed with all the required information

• Handling, storage and internal transportation – Manual handling of waste bags should be minimized – The necks of waste bags should be positioned to allow access for further movement – All clinical waste bags should be handled by the neck only – The bags and containers containing clinical waste from initial storage should removed regularly – Double yellow bags shall be used for clinical wastes from high risks areas – Syringes with attached needles shall be discarded into sharps containers as one unit – Internal passage routes shall be designed to minimize the passage of waste through patient care – Dedicated trolleys or wheeled containers to transport waste container

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Used for health protection and safety of personnel handling/dealing with hazardous waste To avoid acute exposure and minimize the risk of long-term, chronic health problems Potential health and safety problems: ◦ Exposure to toxic chemicals ◦ Electrical, fire, explosion and other safety hazards ◦ Exposure to extremely high or extremely low temperature ◦ Exposure to high noises levels Degree of risk depends on the magnitude and duration of exposure PPE is a control measure to minimize personal exposure when it is not feasible to control risks by engineering control PPE does not eliminate hazard and it is a last line of defence The use of PPE may introduce additional hazards to the wearer by