Visualizing Theory and Theory Building Davide Ravasi Cass

Visualizing Theory and Theory Building Davide Ravasi Cass Business School & Aalto University School of Business

A figure is worth a thousand words…

Figures are commonly used to visualize constructs and relations (theory visualization) NUMBER OF ADOPTIONS PHASE I Search for social gains Peripheral actors’ early adoptions PHASE II Dissemination of positive experiences ·Skill reproduction Codification Mediated exposure ·Discursive persuasion Peer-oriented narratives Public-oriented narratives PHASE III Isomorphic diffusion Imitation Continued tentative adoptions ·Institutional infrastructure Central actors’ early adoptions Organizational imperative Assisted engagement Narratives of negative experiences Abandonment or limited use TIME Bandwagoning Constituents’ coercive pressures for adoption

… but they can also illustrate historical sequences of event (timeline) 55 50 45 Foundation of the Minimally Invasive Robotics Association (MIRA) 35 30 Creation of the Society of Robotic Surgery (SRS) 25 First whole symposium dedicated to robotic surgery in a national conference 20 15 10 5 Year 10 20 09 20 08 20 07 20 06 20 05 20 04 20 03 20 02 20 01 20 00 20 99 0 19 N° of adoptions 40

… visually highlight and suggest empirical patterns (data visualization)

Case h 1 h 2 h 3 h 4 h 5 h 6 h 7 h 8 h 9 h 10 h 11 h 12 h 13 h 14 h 15 h 16 h 17 h 18 h 19 h 20 h 15/2 h 21 h 22 h 23 h 10/2 h 24 h 25 h 26 h 2/2 h 27 h 28 h 29 h 30 h 31 h 32 h 3/2 h 33 h 34 h 9/2 h 35 h 36 h 37 h 38 h 39 h 40 h 20/2 h 1/2 h 41 h 42 h 43 Year 1999 2000 2001 2001 2002 2004 2005 2005 2006 2007 2008 2008 2009 2009 2010 Organizational imperative Cultural imperative Reputational imperative x x x x Propensity to innovate Openness to innovation x x x Search for org. social gains Search for prof. social gains x x x x x x x x x x x x x Search for social gains Fascination with Expected benefits new technology for the surgeon for the patients x x x x Search for technical benefits x x x x Imitation Coercive pressures Band-wagoning x x x x x x x x Isomorphic response x x x x x x x x x x x x

… highlight conditional paths (“if… then…”) in process models (flow chart)

… or illustrating mental models of informants (Corley, 2004)

Some general recommendations (1) • Formatting options: – – – oval vs. square boxes thick arrows vs. thin arrows, dashed lines bold vs. italics text in a box vs. text out of a box … … use them sparingly and consistently to highlight: – theoretical differences: constructs vs. processes, input vs. output, codes of different orders, feedback, etc. – empirical differences: strong and direct evidence vs. indirect evidence

Some general recommendations (2) • Be mindful of common conventions about visual representations (e. g. processes flowing from top to bottom or left to right) • Every deviation from the baseline format i) must have a purpose, and ii) it should be easy for a reader to decode (in doubt, add an explanation) • Do not assume reader can easily decipher your intentions! Ask colleagues if they understand your figures.

What’s wrong with this figure? Figure 6: Logics Recombinant Strategies, Practice Change, and Market Opportunities at Alessi Logics recombinant strategies Approaches to practice change Types of market opportunity Period 1 Period 2 Compartmentalized addition of beliefs of a new logic • Alessi adopted beliefs from the restricted cultural production logic to produce small sculptures for the table through industrial means…. Enriched maintenance of beliefs of the incumbent logic • Belief regarding product value was enriched by a belief from cultural production about aesthetic as a source of value. . . Mimicking practices of a different field • Alessi ignored manufacturing concerns for producing artworks and contracted renown sculptors and gave them full authority on the design of sculptures… Strengthening habitual practices with resources and practices from a different field • Alessi contracted architects, graphic and industrial designers to design kitchenware and add aesthetic value; designers expected to conform to economics and functionality constraints. . . Market entry attempt • New products targeted a new market for the organization (fine arts). • Failure to generate the expected returns both in terms of economic profits and recognition in the field of cultural production. Reinforced position in core markets • New products reinforced the competitive position in the traditional market and achieved considerable commercial success. • No effort to appeal to audience in cultural field. Periods 3 & 4 Hybridization of beliefs of multiple logics • Alessi created a new set of beliefs through holistic reinterpretation of the industrial manufacturing logic and the restricted cultural production logics… Creating a whole new system of practices and structures • Alessi created a new, idiosyncratic system of practices in product development and communication that included elements of practices of both industrial manufacturing and cultural production. Creation of integrated position across fields • New products created a new market for “signed kitchenware” at the intersection of commercial kitchenware and objects of art. • Recognition as a legitimate member of the cultural production field reinforced position in traditional markets.

Balancing accuracy and visual elegance

Grounded model (Stigliani & Ravasi, 2012, first submission) Intersubjective (across community) Compensating ambiguity inherent in language Intrasubjective Compensating amb. of task definition (pictures, boards) Comp. ambiguity of early individual interpretations (sketches, pictures) Compensating amb. of context definition (picture, boards) Activation of conscious cognitive elaboration Activation of mental frames Facilitate conscious elaboration of emerging interpretations Facilitate integration between multiple interpretations Retrospective reconstruction of the process Intersubjective (within community) Intersubjective (across community) Compensating ambiguity of emerging collective interpretations (sketches, pictures) Overexposure to experiential cues (visual library, books) Focusing cognitive elaboration on task (project rooms) Activation of task-specific frames (project rooms) Facilitating articulation of early tentative interpr. (thumbnails) Facilitating categorization of Facilitating categorizations of tentative interpr. (thumbnails, sketches) tentative interpr. (thumbnails) Facilitating elaboration of early tentative interpr. (sketches) Facilitate connections among indiv. interpr. (project rooms) Facilitate mutual elaboration of emerging interp. (sketches, models) Recording emerging indiv. interpretations (thumbnails) Preserving collective sense of the process (thumbnails, sketches, models) Establishing plausibility and coherence of collective interpretations (project rooms)

Grounded model (second submission) Individual level Noticing & Bracketing Articulation Material classification Group level Verbal articulation Elaboration Material memory Interactive talk Visual Integration Influence Inter-group level

Balancing the chronological and theoretical perspectives

Canato, Ravasi & Phillips, 2013: First submission Triggering conditions Isomorphic pressures Phase 1. 2001 -2003 Six Sigm. A as “Operational Excellence” Phase 2. 2004 -2005 Six Sigma as “Fashion” Phase 3. 2006 -2008 “Our Six Sigma” Implementation Coercive adoption • Practice-specific structures • Practice-specific language • Extensive practice-specific training • Mastery of practice as career requirement Cultural fit: Restricted use of traditional cultural resources Strategic fit: Perceived improvement of organizational tasks and performance Normative extension • Six Sigma as self-referential practice • Evaluation criteria based on conformity with new practice • Evaluation focuses on form at the expense of substance Cultural fit: Perceived clash with fundamental cultural elements Strategic fit: Perceived incoherence with org. goals and interference with tasks Members’ Response: Acquiescent acceptance Passive resistance Flexible adaptation • Release of coercive pressure • Customization of practice (reduced faithfulness) • Selective application (reduced extensiveness) Cultural fit: Selective retention of culture enhancing elements Strategic fit: Selective retention of taskcongruent elements Members’ Response: Enrichment of cult. repertoire • New concepts • New attitudes and habits

Second submission Practice Adaptation Cultural change Leaders’ support Form of implementation Organizational culture Experience of cultural dissonance Organizational identity Environmental pressures Experience of practical implications

Third submission Practice Adaptation Leaders’ support Experience of practical implications Organizational culture Sensegiving actions Experience of cultural dissonance Organizational identity Form of implementation Cultural change

Fourth submission

Sometimes it takes ages to find the right representation…

Rindova, Dalpiaz & Ravasi, 2011: First submission CULTURAL REPERTOIRE ENRICHMENT R EGISTER A R EGISTER B R EGISTER C C ULTURAL REPERTOIRE STRATEGIC FLEXIBILITY D IVERSITY IN MARKET SEGMENTS DIVERSIT Y IN PRODUCTS DESIGN APPROACHES CULTURAL VERSATILITY D IVERSITY IN COLLABORAT ORS DIVERSITY IN PRODUCT ION TECHNOLOGIES I DENTITY 1 I DENTITY 2 I DENTITY 3 IDENTITY 4 RE -IDENTI FICATION

Seeking balance between «zoomingout» (focus on core constructs)… Enrichment of Organizational Cultural Repertoire Cultural Diversity & Versatility Periodic revision of Organizational Identity Strategic Innovation & Flexibility

. . . and «zooming-in» (fine-grained articulation of process) If negative, revised implementation and/or exploration of new concepts Exposure to people from different communities and theories from different registers Tentative addition of new concepts and implementati on of concepts in new practices Uncertain outcome Rise of contradictions among concepts Addressing some contradictions stimulates further additions If positive, stimulates revision of industry conventions Complementarities and managed contradictions support… Formation of new strategies of action Unconvention al strategies Explains and justifies inclusion of new concepts Strategic Versatility Competitio n in different task environmen ts Give sense of co-existence of concepts from different registers Periodic redefinition of organizational identity Use of register-consistent social categories Creation of syncretic categories

. . . through multiple iterations between authors. . . Incorporation of Concepts from Different Registers Incorporations from a different register inspire and support… Addition of concepts from a new register Formation of New Strategies of Action Unconventional strategies Build successful positions in multiple task environments Justifies and explains the implement. of concepts Periodic redefinition of organizational identity Use of register-consistent social categories Implementation of new concepts in new practices Creation of syncretic categories Strategic Versatility Effective competition in different task environments Facilitates the reconcilem. of contradictions Management of complementarities and contradictions among new and existing concepts Cumulative incorp. from multiple registers result in. . . Enrichment of Cultural Repertoire Flexible use of concepts from different registers combined and integrated into new practices Expands the available pool of cultural resources

. . . I mean, a LOT of iterations. . . Incorporation of Concepts from Different Registers Addition of concepts from a new register Implementation of new concepts in new practices New conceptualization of elements of the task environment Formation of New Strategies of Action Unconventional strategies Advantageous positions in multiple environments Justifies and explains the implementation of concepts Periodic Redefinition of Organizational Identity Use of register-consistent social categories Creation of syncretic categories Strategic Versatility Effective competition in multiple task environments Facilitates the reconcilement of contradictions Management of complementarities and contradictions among new and existing concepts Integration of concepts and practices across registers Enrichment of Organizational Cultural Repertoire Flexible use of concepts from different registers combined and integrated into new practices Ability to simultaneously execute multiple and diverse strategies of action

…through the second submission… Incorporation of Concepts from a Different Register Enrichment of Cultural Repertoire Addition of concepts Flexible use of concepts from different registers combined and integrated into new practices Implementation of concepts in new practices Complementarities and contradictions among concepts Periodic redefinition of organizational identity Use of register-consistent social categories Creation of syncretic categories New Strategies of Action Strategic Innovation Unconventional strategies Strategic Versatility Competition in different task environments

… to a final process model that made reviewers happy!

Very important! Remember to theorize the arrows

Theorizing the arrows Individual level Noticing & Bracketing Material memory Articulation Environmental cues are Material noticed, bracketed and tentatively organized into classification intuitive ill-defined concepts, which are made available to the rest of the group and refined through successive iterations Individual concepts (reflecting understandings of elements of the task) are gradually linked into a more complex interpretation As emerging concepts are articulated by group members, they become part of the flow of experience of the entire group Group level Verbal articulation Concepts are refined as they are tentatively connected with other concepts, in order to produce an internally ordered (plausible) interpretation Elaboration Material memory Collective sensemaking eventually results in the attempt to produce a plausible account that links emerging understandings and brings order into the ambiguous task Visual elaboration Inter-group level Exchange of accounts Influence Feedback from client may induce the group to reconsider emerging interpretation

Let’s have a look at yours…

And now… … back to the drawing table!!