Variables Typecasting Java allows two or more statements

Variables , Typecasting

• Java allows two or more statements to be grouped into blocks of code, also called code blocks. • This is done by enclosing the statements between opening and closing curly braces. • Once a block of code has been created, it becomes a logical unit that can be used any place that a single statement can. y = 20; // the target of this loop is a block for(x = 0; x<10; x++) { System. out. println("This is x: " + x); System. out. println("This is y: " + y); y = y - 2; }

Lexical Issues • Java programs are a collection of whitespace, identifiers, comments, literals, operators, separators, and keywords White Space • Java is a free-form language. This means that you do not need high-temp, 2 sum, ot/Ok to follow any special indentation rules. int a=10, b=20; System. out. println("Sum is : "+(a+b)); • In Java, whitespace is a space, tab, or newline. Identifiers st e • Identifiers are used for class$tnames, method names, and , r variable names. to a • An identifier maycbe ul any descriptive sequence of uppercase al and lowercase. Cletters, numbers, or the underscore and dollark , sign characters. rk _o a M is g • Theyavmust s_not begin with a number, lest they be i th with a numeric literal. • confused

Literals • A constant value in Java is created by using a literal representation of it. • 1947 3. 14 ‘X’ "This is a test“ Comments • There are three types of comments defined by Java. • single-line, multiline and documentation comment. • // • /* */ • /** and ends with a */. Separators • In Java, there a few characters that are used as separators. The most commonly used separator in Java is the semicolon.

Java Reserved Keywords

• Java is a strongly typed language every variable has a type, every expression has a type, and every type is strictly defined. All assignments, whether explicit or via parameter passing in method calls, are checked for type compatibility. There are no automatic coercions or conversions of conflicting types as in some languages. The Java compiler checks all expressions and parameters to ensure that the types are compatible. Any type mismatches are errors that must be corrected before the compiler will finish compiling the class. • In C/C++ floating-point value can assign to an integer. In Java, does not permit this cannot.

Simple Types • Java defines eight simple (or elemental) types of data: byte, short, int, long, char, float, double, and boolean. • • • These can be put in four groups: Integers byte, short , int and long. Used for whole-valued signed numbers. Floating-point numbers float and double. Represent numbers with fractional precision. Characters char Represents symbols in a character set, like letters and numbers. Boolean boolean A special type for representing true/false values.

• The simple types represent single values—not complex objects. • Although Java is otherwise completely object-oriented, the simple types are not. • Because of Java‘s portability requirement, all data types have a strictly defined range.

Integers • .

Integer • All of the integer groups in java are signed, positive and negative values. • Java does not support unsigned, positive-only integers

Floating Point • Floating-point numbers, also known as real numbers, are used when evaluating expressions that require fractional precision.

Charecters • In Java, the data type used to store characters is char. • In C/C++, char is an integer type that is 8 bits wide. This is not the case in Java. Instead, Java uses Unicode to represent characters. • In Java char is a 16 -bit Unicode defines a fullytype. international character set that can represent all of the characters found in all • Thehuman range languages. of a char is 0 to 65, 536. There are no negative chars. It is a unification of dozens of character such • Since Java is designed to allow applets tosets, be written for as Latin, use, Greek, Arabic, sense Cyrillic, that Hebrew, Katakana, worldwide it makes it would use Unicode to Hangul, and many more. represent characters. For this purpose, it requires 16 bits • The use of Unicode is somewhat inefficient for languages such as English, German, Spanish, or French, whose characters can easily be contained within 8 bits. But such is the price that must be paid for global portability

// Demonstrate char data type. class Char. Demo { public static void main(String args[]) { char ch 1, ch 2; ch 1 = 88; // code for X ch 2 = 'Y'; System. out. print("ch 1 and ch 2: "); System. out. println(ch 1 + " " + ch 2); } } ch 1 and ch 2: X Y

// char variables behave like integers. class Char. Demo 2 { public static void main(String args[]) { char ch 1; ch 1 = 'X'; System. out. println("ch 1 contains " + ch 1); ch 1++; // increment ch 1 System. out. println("ch 1 is now " + ch 1); } } ch 1 contains X ch 1 is now Y

Booleans • Java has a simple type, called boolean , for logical values. • It can have only one of two possible values, true or false. • This is the type returned by all relational operators, such as a < b. • boolean is also the type required by the conditional expressions that govern the control statements such as if and for.

// Demonstrate boolean values. class Bool. Test { public static void main(String args[]) { boolean b; b = false; System. out. println("b is " + b); b = true; System. out. println("b is " + b); // a boolean value can control the if statement if(b) System. out. println("This is executed. "); b = false; if(b) System. out. println("This is not executed. "); // outcome of a relational operator is a boolean value System. out. println("10 > 9 is " + (10 > 9)); } }

b is This 10 > false true is executed. 9 is true

Variables • A variable is a container that stores a meaningful value that can be used throughout a program. • Variables store this information in a computer's memory and the value of a variable can change all through out a program. • Java has special keywords to signify what type of data each variable stores. Use these keywords when declaring variables to set the data type of the variable. • Java supports different primitive data types. Primitive data types are also referred to as simple data types • Syntax of variable declaration type var_name; Type specifies the type of value the variable hold.

• boolean 1 -bit. May take on the values true and false only. true and false are defined constants of the language and are not the same as True and False, TRUE and FALSE, zero and nonzero, 1 and 0 or any other numeric value. Booleans may not be cast into any other type of variable nor may any other variable be cast into a boolean. • byte 1 signed byte (two's complement). Covers values from -128 to 127. • short 2 bytes, signed (two's complement), -32, 768 to 32, 767 • int 4 bytes, signed (two's complement). -2, 147, 483, 648 to 2, 147, 483, 647. Like all numeric types ints may be cast into other numeric types (byte, short, long, float, double). When lossy casts are done (e. g. int to byte) the conversion is done modulo the length of the smaller type.

• long 8 bytes signed (two's complement). Ranges from 9, 223, 372, 036, 854, 775, 808 to +9, 223, 372, 036, 854, 775, 807. • float 4 bytes, IEEE 754. Covers a range from 1. 40129846432481707 e-45 to 3. 40282346638528860 e+38 (positive or negative). Like all numeric types floats may be cast into other numeric types (byte, short, long, int, double). When lossy casts to integer types are done (e. g. float to short) the fractional part is truncated and the conversion is done modulo the length of the smaller type. • double 8 bytes IEEE 754. Covers a range from In C++ char is an 4. 94065645841246544 e-324 d to integer type. Java 1. 79769313486231570 e+308 d (positive or negative). char 2 uses Unicode, hence bytes, unsigned, Unicode, 0 to 65, 535 it is 16 bit. No • Chars negative are not the same as bytes, ints, shorts or Strings.

Program Snippet package org. mes. basic; /** * This class demonstrates the use of different variables * * @author Nishad Abdulkareem * @date Jun 29, 2010 * */ public class First. Class { /** * @param args */ public static void main(String[] args) { byte test; test = 127; // test=128; will show compiler error char v = 'a'; int a = v; System. out. println("byte : " + test + ", char : " + v + ", int } } /* * Output of the program byte : 127, char : a, int */ : 97 : " + a);

• Variable names are case-sensitive. A variable's name can be any legal identifier — an unlimited-length sequence of Unicode letters and digits, beginning with a letter, the dollar sign "$", or the underscore character "_". • The convention is to always begin variable names with a letter. White space is not permitted.

Scope of a variable • Java defines two different kinds of scopes One defined by a class and other defined by method. • Class scope has several unique properties and attributes that do not apply to the scope defined by a method. • Scope defined by the method starts with its opening curly brace. If that method has parameters. • A variable declared inside a scope are note visible to the scope outside that scope. • Following program illustrates the scope of variables.

package org. mes. basic; /** * @author Nishad Abdulkareem * @date Jun 29, 2010, 2: 26: 50 PM */ public class Scope. Of. Variable { /** * This method contains sample code, which describes scope of variables. * * @param args */ public static void main(String[] args) { int your. Age; // Known to all code within main. your. Age = 15; if (your. Age == 15) { int my. Age = 18; System. out. println("your. Age and my. Age : " + your. Age + ", " + my. Age); your. Age = my. Age * 2; } // my. Age=18; will not compile since it is out of scope. System. out. println("your. Age : " + your. Age); } } /* Output: your. Age and my. Age : 15, 18 your. Age : 36 • */

Type Casting • If two types are compatible java performs the conversion automatically. int value can be assigned to long. • All conversions are not possible double cannot be cast to byte. • When one type of data is assigned to another type of variable, an automatic type conversion will takes place if the following two conditions are met. • The types are compatible. • The destination type is larger than source type. • When these two conditions met , a widening condition takes place. int type is large enough the byte values, no explicit cast statement is required.

Casting incompatible types • To create a conversion between two incompatible types we must cast the types. The cast is an explicit type conversion. (target_type)value. The target type specifies the desired type to convert the specified value. int a; byte b; ……. . b= (byte)a;

// Demonstrate casts. class Conversion { public static void main(String args[]) { byte b; int i = 257; double d = 323. 142; System. out. println("\n. Conversion of int to byte. "); b = (byte) i; System. out. println("i and b " + i + " " + b); System. out. println("\n. Conversion of double to int. "); i = (int) d; System. out. println("d and i " + d + " " + i); System. out. println("\n. Conversion of double to byte. "); b = (byte) d; System. out. println("d and b " + d + " " + b); } }

Conversion of int to byte. i and b 257 1 Conversion of double to int. d and i 323. 142 323 Conversion of double to byte. d and b 323. 142 67 • When the value 257 is cast into a byte variable, the result is the remainder of the division of 257 by 256 (the range of a byte), which is 1 in this case. • When the d is converted to an int, its fractional component is lost. When d is converted to a byte, its fractional component is lost, and the value is reduced modulo 256, which in this case is 67.

Automatic Type promotion in Expression • • • In addition to assignments conversions may Occur in expressions The precision required of an intermediate value will sometimes exceed the range of either operand byte a = 40; byte b = 50; byte c = 100; int d = a * b / c; The result of the intermediate term a * b easily exceeds the range of either of its byte operands. To handle this kind of problem, Java automatically promotes each byte or short operand to int when evaluating an expression. This means that the subexpression a * b is performed using integers—not bytes. Thus, 2, 000, the result of the intermediate expression, 50 * 40, is legal even though a and b are both specified as type byte.

• In addition to the elevation of bytes and shots to in, Java defines several type promotion rules that apply to expressions. byte -> short->long. If one operand is float , the entire expression is promoted to float. If any one of the operand is double the result is double

package org. mes. basic; /** * @author Nishad Abdulkareem * @date Jun 30, 2010, 5: 43: 33 AM */ public class Type. Promotion { /* * Illustrates the type promotion */ public static void main(String[] args) { byte b = 42; byte c = 'a'; short s = 1024; int i = 50000; float f = 5. 67 f; double d =. 1234; double result = (f * b) + (i / c) - (d * s); System. out. println("result is : " + result); } } // result is : 626. 7784146484375

Type Promotion • In the first expression (f * b) , b is promoted to a float and the result of the sub expression is float. • Next , in sub expression i/c , c is promoted to int. • Then d*s , the value of s is promoted to double, and the type of sub expression is double. • Finally these three intermediate values float, int and double are considered. • The outcome of float plus and int is a float. Then the resultant float minus the last double is promoted to double , which is type of the expression.

Array • An array is a group of like-type variables that are referred to by a common name. Array of any type can be created and may have One or more dimensions. • A specific element in an array is accessed by its index. • Arrays can be either One Dimensional or Multi dimensional.

One Dimensional Array • type var_name[]; • int month_days[]; • Here the array month_days is an array variable , but no array actually exists, the value is set to null. • We need to allocate memory for this integer array using the new operator. array_var=new type[size]; month_days = new int[12]; • After the above statement the month_days will refer to an integer variable of size 12. All the elements will be initialized to zero.

int month_days[]= new int[12]; month_days[0]=31; month_days[1]=28; System. out. println("Days "+month_days[0]); • Will print Days 31. • int month_days[]={31, 28, 31, 30, 31}; • In the above example we are using array initializer that is a list of comma separated expressions, no need of new operator. • If we try to access an element from outside the range it will create exception.

Multidimensional Arrays • Arrays of arrays. The following code declares a two dimensional array. int two. D[][]=new int[4][5]; This allocates a 4 X 5 array and assign it to two. D. internally the array is implemented a an array of arrays of int. • When we allocate memory for a multidimensional array , we need to specify the memory for the first(leftmost) dimension. We can allocate the remaining dimension separately. • Find Largest

// Demonstrate a two-dimensional array. class Two. DArray { public static void main(String args[]) { int two. D[][]= new int[4][5]; int i, j, k = 0; for(i=0; i<4; i++) for(j=0; j<5; j++) { two. D[i][j] = k; k++; } for(i=0; i<4; i++) { for(j=0; j<5; j++) System. out. print(two. D[i][j] + " "); System. out. println(); } } }

• When you allocate memory for a multidimensional array, you need only specify the memory for the first (leftmost) dimension. • following code allocates memory for the first dimension of two. D when it is declared. It allocates the second dimension manually. int two. D[][] = new int[4][]; two. D[0] = new int[5]; two. D[1] = new int[5]; two. D[2] = new int[5]; two. D[3] = new int[5];

// Manually allocate differing size second dimensions. class Two. DAgain { public static void main(String args[]) { int two. D[][] = new int[4][]; two. D[0] = new int[1]; two. D[1] = new int[2]; two. D[2] = new int[3]; two. D[3] = new int[4]; int i, j, k = 0; for(i=0; i<4; i++) for(j=0; j<i+1; j++) { two. D[i][j] = k; k++; } for(i=0; i<4; i++) { for(j=0; j<i+1; j++) System. out. print(two. D[i][j] + " "); 0 System. out. println(); 12 } 345 } 6789 }

Alternative ways of Array declaration • type[ ] var-name; • Here, the square brackets follow the type specifier, and not the name of the array variable. For example, the following two declarations are equivalent: int al[] = new int[3]; int[] a 2 = new int[3]; • The following declarations are also equivalent: char twod 1[][] = new char[3][4]; char[][] twod 2 = new char[3][4];

Operators • Java provides rich operator environment. Most of its operator s can be divided in to four groups. Arithmetic Bitwise Relational Logical

Arithmetic Operators • Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions in the same way that they are used in algebra. + * / % ++ += -= *= /= %= -- Addition Subtraction (also unary minus) Multiplication Division Modulus Increment Addition assignment Subtraction assignment Multiplication assignment Division assignment Modulus assignment Decrement

Modulo 1 : 0. 314299 Modulo 2 : 3. 3143

Arithmetic cntd. . • Java provides special operators that can be used to combine an arithmetic operation with an assignment. a = a + 4; • In Java, you can rewrite this statement as shown here: a += 4; • This version uses the += assignment operator. Both statements perform the same action: they increase the value of a by 4. , a = a % 2; can be expressed as a %= 2;

Increment and decrement • The ++ and the - - are Java's increment and decrement operators. • The increment operator increases its operand by one. The decrement operator decreases its operand by one. • For example, this statement: x = x + 1; can be rewritten like this by use of the increment operator: x++; • This operator can be applied in prefix form and post fix form. • The prefix form, the operand is incremented or decremented before the value is obtained for use in the expression. • In postfix form, the previous value is obtained for use in the expression, and then the operand is modified.

// Demonstrate ++. class Inc. Dec { public static void main(String args[]) { int a = 1; int b = 2; int c; int d; c = ++b; d = a++; c++; System. out. println("a = " + a); System. out. println("b = " + b); System. out. println("c = " + c); System. out. println("d = " + d); } } The output of this program follows: a = 2 b = 3 c = 4 d = 1

~ & | ^ >> >>> << &= |= ^= >>>= <<= Bitwise unary NOT Bitwise AND Bitwise OR Bitwise exclusive OR Shift right zero fill Shift left Bitwise AND assignment Bitwise OR assignment Bitwise exclusive OR assignment Shift right zero fill assignment Shift left assignment

Bitwise Operators • Java defines several bitwise operators which can be applied to the integer types, long, int, short, char, and byte. These operators act upon the individual bits of their operands. • The operators discussed in this section are less commonly used. • The unary bitwise complement operator "~" inverts a bit pattern; it can be applied to any of the integral types, making every "0" a "1" and every "1" a "0". For example, a byte contains 8 bits; applying this operator to a value whose bit pattern is "0000" would change its pattern to "1111".

• The signed left shift operator "<<" shifts a bit pattern to the left, and the signed right shift operator ">>" shifts a bit pattern to the right. The bit pattern is given by the left-hand operand, and the number of positions to shift by the right-hand operand. The unsigned right shift operator ">>>" shifts a zero into the leftmost position, while the leftmost position after ">>" depends on sign extension. • The bitwise & operator performs a bitwise AND operation. • The bitwise ^ operator performs a bitwise exclusive OR operation. • The bitwise | operator performs a bitwise inclusive OR operation.

Relational Operators • The relational operators determine the relationship that one operand has to the other. • Specifically, they determine equality and ordering. == != > < >= <= Equal to Not equal to Greater than Less than Greater than or equal to Less than or equal to

• The outcome of these operations is a Boolean value. The relational operators are most frequently used in the expressions that control the if statement and the various loop • statements. • Any type in Java, including integers, floating-point numbers, characters, and Booleans can be compared using the equality test, ==, and the inequality test, !=.

? Operator • expression 1 ? expression 2 : expression 3 • expression 1 can be any expression that evaluates to a Boolean value. If expression 1 is true, then expression 2 is evaluated; otherwise, expression 3 is evaluated. ratio = denom == 0 ? 0 : num / denom;

Operator Precedence Highest ( ) [ ]. ++ -~ ! * / % + >> >>> << > >= < <= == ! = & ^ | && || ? : = op= • Parentheses raise the precedence of the operations that are inside them. This is often necessary to obtain the result you desire

Control Statements • A programming language uses control statements to cause the flow of execution to advance and branch based on changes to the state of a program. • Java's program control statements can be put into the following categories: Selection, Iteration Jump

Selection Statements • Java supports two selection statements: if and switch • The if statement is Java's conditional branch statement. It can be used to route program execution through two different paths. • general form of the if statement: if (condition) statement 1; else statement 2; • The condition is any expression that returns a Boolean value. The else clause is optional.

Nested If if(i if(j if(k else } else a = == 10) { < 20) a = b; > 100) c = d; // this if is a = c; // associated with this else d;

if(condition) statement; else if(condition) statement; . . . else statement; Program that checks the grade of a student

switch • • • The switch statement is Java's multiway branch statement. It provides an easy way to dispatch execution to different parts of your code based on the value of an expression. It often provides a better alternative than a large series of if-else-if statements. switch (expression) { case value 1: // statement sequence break; case value 2: // statement sequence break; . . case value. N: // statement sequence break; default: // default statement sequence }

• The expression must be of type byte, short, int, or char; each of the values specified in the case statements must be of a type compatible with the expression. • Each case value must be a unique literal (that is, it must be a constant, not a variable). Duplicate case values are not allowed. • The value of the expression is compared with each of the literal values in the case statements. If a match is found, the code sequence following that case statement is executed. • If none of the constants matches the value of the expression, then the default statement is executed. However, the default statement is optional. • If no case matches and no default is present, then no further action is taken. • The break statement is used inside the switch to terminate a statement sequence. When a break statement is encountered, execution branches to the first line of code that follows the entire switch statement.

// A simple example of the switch. class Sample. Switch { public static void main(String args[]) { for(int i=0; i<6; i++) switch(i) { case 0: System. out. println("i break; case 1: System. out. println("i break; case 2: System. out. println("i break; case 3: System. out. println("i break; default: System. out. println("i } } } is zero. "); is one. "); is two. "); is three. "); is greater than 3. ");

Break statement // In a switch, break statements are optional. class Missing. Break { public static void main(String args[]) { for(int i=0; i<12; i++) switch(i) { case 0: case 1: case 2: case 3: case 4: System. out. println("i is less than 5"); break; case 5: case 6: case 7: case 8: case 9: System. out. println("i is less than 10"); break; default: System. out. println("i is 10 or more"); } } }

Iteration Statements • for • while • do-while

while • The while loop is Java's most fundamental looping statement. It repeats a statement or block while its controlling expression is true. while(condition) { // body of loop } • The condition can be any Boolean expression. The body of the loop will be executed as long as the conditional expression is true. • When condition becomes false, control passes to the next line of code immediately following the loop. The curly braces are unnecessary if only a single statement is being repeated.

This will not be displayed int a = 10, b = 20; while(a > b) System. out. println(“wat s my fate? ");

do-while • There are times when you would like to test the termination expression at the end of the loop rather than at the beginning. • Java supplies do-while loop. Each iteration of the do-while loop first executes the body of the loop and then evaluates • the conditional expression. • The do-while loop always executes its body at least once, because its conditional expression is at the bottom of the loop. do { // body of loop } while (condition);

for • • • It is a powerful and versatile construct. for(initialization; condition; iteration) { // body } If only one statement is being repeated, there is no need for the curly braces. When the loop first starts, the initialization portion of the loop is executed. Generally, initialization is an expression that sets the value of the loop control variable, which acts as a counter that controls the loop. The initialization expression is only executed once. Next, condition is evaluated. This must be a Boolean expression. , usually tests the loop control variable against a target value. If this expression is true, then the body of the loop is executed. If it is false, the loop terminates. Next, the iteration portion of the loop is executed. This is usually an expression that increments or decrements the loop control variable. The loop then iterates, first evaluating the conditional expression, then executing the body of the loop, and then executing the iteration expression with each pass. This process repeats until the controlling expression is false.

• • // Declare a loop control variable inside the for. class For. Tick { public static void main(String args[]) { // here, n is declared inside of the for loop for(int n=10; n>0; n—) System. out. println("tick " + n); } } Java permits to include multiple statements in both the initialization and iteration portions of the for. Each statement is separated from the next by a comma. // Using the comma. class Comma { public static void main(String args[]) { int a, b; for(a=1, b=4; a<b; a++, b—) { System. out. println("a = " + a); System. out. println("b = " + b); } } }

for loop variation • In a for loop either the initialization or the iteration expression or both may be absent. • See the following for loop variation. // Parts of the for loop can be empty. class For. Var { public static void main(String args[]) { int i; boolean done = false; i = 0; for( ; !done; ) { System. out. println("i is " + i); if(i == 10) done = true; i++; } } }

for( ; ; ) { //. . . } • This loop will run forever, because there is no condition under which it will terminate. • WAP that checks Palindrome Number

Jump Statements • Java supports three jump statements: break, continue Return • In addition to the jump statements , Java supports one other way that can change program's flow of execution: through exception handling. • Exception handling provides a structured method by which run -time errors can be trapped and handled by your program. • It is supported by the keywords try, catch, throws, and finally

Break • • • The break statement has three uses. It terminates a statement sequence in a switch statement. It can be used to exit a loop. Can be used as a "civilized" form of goto. By using break, you can force immediate termination of a loop, bypassing the conditional expression and any remaining code in the body of the loop. When a break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is terminated and program control resumes at the next statement following the loop // Using break to exit a loop. class Break. Loop { public static void main(String args[]) { for(int i=0; i<100; i++) { if(i == 10) break; // terminate loop if i is 10 System. out. println("i: " + i); } System. out. println("Loop complete. "); } }

Break…. • The break statement can be used with any of Java's loops, including intentionally infinite loops. • The break statement in the inner loop only causes termination of that loop. The outer loop is unaffected. • The break that terminates a switch statement affects only that switch statement and not any enclosing loops.

• Short Assignmet How to use break as a Form of Goto

Return • The return statement is used to explicitly return from a method. • It causes program control to transfer back to the caller of the method. As such, it is categorized as a jump statement. • At any time in a method the return statement can be used to cause execution to branch back to the caller of the method.

Command-Line Arguments • Sometimes you will want to pass information into a program when you run it. This is accomplished by passing command-line arguments to main( ). • A command-line argument is the information that directly follows the program's name on the command line when it is executed The value of command-line arguments are stored as strings in the String array passed to main( ). // Display all command-line arguments. class Command. Line { public static void main(String args[]) { for(int i=0; i<args. length; i++) System. out. println("args[" + i + "]: " + args[i]); } } Try executing this program, as shown here: java Command. Line this is a test 100 -1 When you do, you will see the following output: args[0]: this args[1]: is args[2]: a args[3]: test args[4]: 100 args[5]: -1 • All command-line arguments are passed as strings