Using the scientific method Observational Methods Research Designs

Using the scientific method Observational Methods & Research Designs Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

n Reggie. Net Quizzes n n Next week’s labs: n n Quiz 2 is Due Fri. at midnight. Download and read the Assefi & Garry (2003) article before labs Group Projects – n n An experiment, at least 1 independent variable and 1 dependent variable Limited resources: 10 -15 per group of run time, one room (but we can put folks in the hall to wait their turn: Thursday sections could work differently because the two sections meet at same time), ~20 participants (but thinking about ways to try to increase this) Announcements

n Why do a review of the literature? n What is the literature? n How do you search the literature? n Psyc. Info is a powerful tool • At Milner Library web page • Some tutorials: video (~4 mins) | video (~55 mins) | more videos here n Google Scholar is an increasingly powerful tool • https: //scholar. google. com/ Reviewing the literature

n What are the underlying motivations for doing a review of the literature? § § § Getting ideas. What has been done, what hasn’t been done? Understanding the relevant theories. What variables are important? Avoid past mistakes. Why review the literature?

n Primary Sources - essentially reading the original report § § Journal articles Edited books (sometimes) Professional meetings Electronic publishing (fairly new, pluses and minuses) § Recommendation: stick to peer review journals, there are some that just require authors to pay-to-publish § Faculty members & other personal communications What is the literature?

n Secondary Sources - reading a report of the report § § § Literature Reviews § Psychological Bulletin, Annual Review of Psychology Text books Citations in books and articles Advantages: • Good starting place • Often reviews a lot of relevant literature • Relatively brief descriptions Disadvantages: • Somebody else’s description • May be incorrect • May be biased • Not enough detail What is the literature?

n Claim: People perform best with a good night of sleep. • • • Sleep walking story (2) Sleep and high school (2) Science of sleep • To begin to answer the claim we’ve got to FOCUS the idea • Break the general idea down into smaller more specific ideas • Develop theories/hypotheses as to how & why • EVALUATE the idea (e. g. , the ROT test) • TEST the idea: using research methods to test parts of theory (hypotheses) Developing your Research Idea

n Claim: People perform best with a good night of sleep. n Focusing the idea n What do we mean by “perform best”? • Academic performance? • Physical performance? n What do we mean by “good night sleep”? Operational definitions • 8 hrs? , Uninterrupted? , 2 hours of REM? n What is the underlying theory? What hypotheses do we test? • e. g. , Consolidation of memories happen during REM sleep, so getting more REM sleep should lead to better recall Developing your Research Idea

n n Claim: People perform best with a good night of sleep. Evaluating the idea (ROT) n Can we replicate the research, do we get similar results? n n Answer may depend on how you choose to make your observations (your research methods) How do we observe performance? How do we observe good sleep? • Recall tests, recognition tests, “brain waves, ” , , , n Are our predictions testable? Developing your Research Idea

n n Claim: People perform best with a good night of sleep. How might we go about trying to test this claim? n n n What are things (variables) of interest? What is the hypothesized relationship between these variables? How should we test it? n n How do we observe the behavior? What research design should we use, what are our goals? Developing your Research Idea

n Observational approaches: Data collection n n How do we observe the behaviors of interest? Types of research designs n What kinds of research questions are you investigating? • E. g. , Cause and effect? Descriptive? Conducting Research

n Observational approaches: Data collection n How do we observe the behaviors of interest? • • • Naturalistic observation Direct Observation Participant observation Survey & interviews Archival data Systematic (contrived/analog) observation • Experiments Observational Methods Observation without manipulation

n Naturalistic Observation: Observation and description of behaviors within a natural setting n n Jane Goodall n n High external validity Good for behaviors that don’t occur (as well) in more controlled settings Often a first step in the research project Can be difficult to do well n n n Hard not to influence things (reactivity effect) Takes a long time Need multiple observers to agree Dian Fossey Observational Methods

n Participant Observation: The researcher engages in the same behaviors as those being observed n n May allow observation of behaviors not normally accessible to outside observation Internal perspective from direct participation • But could lead to loss of objectivity n Potential for contamination by observer http: //www. sil. org/~headlandt/students. htm Observational Methods

n Survey methods: Questionnaires and interviews that ask people to provide information about themselves • Widely used methodology • Best way to collect some kinds of information: • Descriptive, behavioral, and preferential • e. g. , demographic information, recreational behavior, and attitudes • Large amounts of data can be collected quickly with relatively little cost (effort, time, etc. ) • But they’re often not as “cheap” as you may think • Done correctly, can be a very difficult method Observational Methods

n Archival data: Rather than making direct observations, researcher examines existing public or private records n n If the appropriate existing records can be found, no need for data collection Data set may be more extensive than what you could collect yourself • However, you are limited to the data that exists, may be no way to collect follow-up data n Data may be of observations that you cannot (ethically) collect or manipulate • E. g. , murder rates, who marries whom, etc. n Word of caution: be aware of how and where the data were collected Observational Methods

Observation without manipulation n Advantages n n n Complex patterns of behavior in particular settings Useful when little is known about the subject of study May learn about something that never would have thought of looking at experimentally n Disadvantages n n Causality is a problem Threats to internal validity because of lack of control • Every confound is a threat • Lots of alternative explanations n n Observational Methods Directionality of the relationship isn’t known Sometimes the results are not reproducible

n Systematic (Contrived/Analog Observation): The observer sets up the situation that is observed n n Observations of one or more specific variables made in a precisely defined setting Much less global than naturalistic observations Often takes less time However, since it is not a natural setting, the behavior may be changed Observational Methods

n Case studies n n Correlational n n Looking for a co-occurrence relationship between two (or more) variables Quasi-experimental n n Intensive study of a small set of individuals and their behaviors Experimental designs with one or more non-random variables Experimental n Investigating the cause-and-effect relationship between two (or more) variables through the manipulation of variables Types of research designs

n Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method. Typically: n n Descriptive (and non-experimental). Interesting (and often rare) case. Fits well with clinical work. n Phineas Gage n n n (Sci. Am. Show) Sept 13, 1848 Explosion propelled a railroad tamping rod through his brain Changed personality This view has some disadvantages n n There may be poor generalizabilty There are typically a number of possible confounds and alternative explanations Case Histories See: Oliver Sacks’ books for some other great examples interview

n Measure two (or more) variables for each individual and see if the variables co-occur (suggesting that they are related) X n or or Used for: n n Y? Predictions Establishing Reliability and Validity Evaluating theories Limitation: Shouldn’t make casual claims Correlational Methods

We’d like to say: n n § § § To be able to do this: X causes Y There must be co-variation between the two variables The causal variable must come first § X Y or Directionality problem • Happy people sleep well • Or is it that sleeping well when you are happy? Need to eliminate plausible alternative explanations § Third variable problem • Do Storks bring babies? • Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings Causal claims X Y

Source: Kronmal (1993) r = 0. 63 • Do Storks bring babies? • Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings Causal claims

• Is killing storks and effective method of controlling birth rates? Theory 1: Storks deliver babies

Theory 2: Underlying third variable

n Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments n Must have a comparison n At least two groups (often more) that get compared One groups serves as a control for the other group Variables n Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated • Allows for the testing of causal hypotheses n n Dependent variable - the variable that is measured Control variables - held constant for all participants in the experiment The experimental method

n Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments Advantages n n Precise control possible Precise measurement possible Theory testing possible Can make causal claims Disadvantages n n Artificial situations may restrict generalization to “real world” Complex behaviors may be difficult to measure The experimental method