Urbanization n Section I n A Defining Urban

Urbanization

n Section I n A. Defining Urban Center United Nation’s classification of different definitions of urban center n Concepts of suburban, rural urban fringe and urbanism n B. Defining Urbanization n C. Five stage process of population concentration: Gibbs Model n D. Degree of Urbanization and its measure n

A. Defining Urban Center

n Urbanists define urban areas by their high population density. They maintain that this characteristic makes cities physically and sociologically distinct from rural areas. n However, cities/urban areas/ urban centers/ urban settlements are defined differently in each country

n Census organization of different countries classify their population into rural and urban population on the basis of the definition of an urban center which takes into account the local conditions. n No standard definition of an urban center.

Problem of recognizing urban regions n Within each nation, we can delimit formal and functional culture regions separating urban and rural domains n There is no agreed-upon international definition of what constitutes a city n India defines an urban center as 5, 000 inhabitants, with adult males employed primarily in nonagricultural work n The United States Census Bureau defines a city as a densely populated area of 2, 500 people or more n South Africa counts as a city any settlement of 500 or more people

United Nation’s classification of different definitions of urban center n Those countries which define and urban settlement on the basis of n Group I - Historical, political and administrative status. Example: any districts, communes. n Group II - Statistical criterions. Example: a minimum size of the population is a basic criterion. n Group III – Some local self government such as municipality, borough, chartered town. n Group IV – Layout and amenities. Example: street plan, contiguously aligned buildings, public utility services like electricity, water supply, sewerage system, school etc. n Group V – Functions. Examples: Certain percentage of workers to be engaged in non agricultural activities.

Examples from different countries n Venezuela: less than 1000 pop. – Rural, More than 2500 pop. – Urban n Japan: Minimum settlement size 30, 000 population n Sweden: Minimum settlement size 200 population n U. K. : Urban designation on the basis of local governments such as country, boroughs, municipal boroughs and urban districts. n Canada: more than 400 people per square kilometer and has more than 1, 000 people. n USA: Extra Credits – Homework

Urban areas are more than cities. n An urban area is an area with an increased density of human-created structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it. This term is at one end of the spectrum of suburban and rural areas. An urban area is more frequently called a city or town. n A urban agglomeration (metropolitan area) includes a city, its suburbs and its labor market from which people commute.

Some other concepts n Suburbs: Are commonly defined as residential areas on the outskirts of a city or large town. Most modern suburbs are commuter towns with many single-family homes. Many suburbs have some degree of political autonomy and most have lower population density than inner city neighborhoods. n The urban rural fringe: Also known as the outskirts or the urban hinterland, can be described as the "landscape interface between town and country", or alternatively as the transition zone where urban and rural uses mix and often clash. Alternatively, it can be viewed as a landscape type in its own right, one forged from an interaction of urban and rural land uses. n Urbanism: The process by which a section of population adopts an urban way of life even while residing in the country side.

B. Defining Urbanization n Urbanization is the increase in the population of cities in proportion to the region's rural population. n Geographers use the term urbanization more commonly to refer to the process of transformation. n Transformation in three aspects n n n Behavioral: experience of elders over time and the changes to the pattern of their behavior. Structural: changes in economic structure of the economic activities of the whole population. Demographic: process of population concentration.

n Riessman, 1964 defined Urbanization as the whole process of change and its consequences when a society gets transformed from an agrarian economy to an industrial economy and from a small homogenous society to a large heterogeneous mass. n Geographers are more concerned with the spatial implications which the process carries rather than the process itself.

C. Five stage process of population concentration: Gibbs Model n Stage I: The urban settlements emerge, but the percentage increase in the urban population is either equal to or less than the percentage increase in rural population. n Stage II: The rate of increase in urban population exceeds the rate of increase in rural population, largely because of rural urban migration. n Stage III: Rural depopulation takes place because of increased magnitude of rural-urban migration. The natural increase in rural areas also gets wiped out. The rate of urban concentration excels further.

n Stage IV: The requirement of big cities become more sophisticated and oriented towards specialization. Big cities starts attracting migrants from small towns. Small towns starts stagnating. Big cities grow rapidly at the cost of small towns. The volume of rural urban migration declines. n Stage V: There is a decline in the territorial divisions with regards to population density, that is, a change towards more even spatial distribution of population. Improvement in transport and communication reduce the physical and time distance and enable the pop to live without high level of concentration. Satellite town emerge on the periphery of huge metropolitan areas.

D. Degree of Urbanization and its measure n The extent to which an area is urbanized

n Percentage Distribution: The percentage of urban population to total population is considered an index of degree of urbanization. n Size and spacing: Average size of the urban center coupled with average spacing has been used as a measure of degree of urbanization. This is calculated by dividing the total urban population of the concerned region by the number of urban places. Average spacing is calculated by diving the total area of the region by the total number of urban centers. n Urban densities: Total urban population divided by the total area of the region.

n Gini concentration ratio: n Rank size rule: This implies a inverse correlation between the number of places and the size category. It means that the number of small sized urban places in a fairly large sized country and it goes on declining with the increase in the size level. n Primacy index: Primate city is the one which is several times larger than the second ranking city.

Some more information on Rank size rule: n The Rank Size Rule notes the relationship between the ranks of cities and their populations. n It was advanced by Zipf in 1941 n The formula is Pn=P 1/n where Pn is the population of towns ranked n, P 1 is the population of the largest town and n is the rank of the town. n For example, if the largest town has a population of x, the second largest town will have a population of x/2, the 3 rd largest will have a population of x/3 and so on.

Some more information on Primate city: n Primate city — a settlement city that dominates the economic, political, and cultural life of a country n Factors that affect high primacy include n Having an underdeveloped economy n Having an agriculturally dominant economy n A rapidly expanding population n A recent colonial history n Example of Mexico City — far exceeds Guadalajara, the second-largest city in Mexico, in size and importance n Primate cities are also found in developed countries — London and Birmingham; Paris and Marseilles.

n Section II n A. Determinants of urbanization n B. World pattern of urbanization n C. Origin and Diffusion of the City The first cities Models for the rise of cities Urban hearth areas The diffusion of the city from hearth areas

A. Determinants of urbanization n Broadly three categories n Economic n Social n Demographic

Economic q Type of economy q The degree of commercialization of agriculture q The extent of diversification of economy q The changing size of agricultural landholdings q The stage of economic advancement q Degree of development of means of transportation and communication

Social Degree of socio economic awakening q Desire for higher living standard q Appreciation of benefits of urban living q The social value system q The break up joint family system q q The stage of technological advancement q The public policies q The government decisions

Demographic q The rate of population growth q Magnitude of migration q Pressure of population on agricultural resources

B. World pattern of urbanization

n Imagine humankind’s sojourn on Earth as a 24 -hour day n Settlements of more than a hundred people are only about a half-hour old n Towns and cities emerged only a few minutes ago n Large-scale urbanization began less than 60 seconds ago

Problem of recognizing urban regions n Some countries revise definitions of urban settlements to suit specific purposes. n China revised its census definitions with criteria that vary from province to province causing their urban population to swell by 13 percent in 1983.

Generalizations n Generalizations made about the differences in the world’s urbanized population n Highly industrialized countries have higher rates of urbanized population than do less-developed countries n Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing n n Caused by massive migration away from the country People flock to the cities searching for a better life

World cities n Over half of the world’s 20 largest cities are in the developing world. n Thirty years ago, the list of world cities was dominated by Western, industrialized cities. n Now the list is even more dominated by the developing world.

n Urbanization in the last 200 years has strengthened links between culture, society, and the city n “Urban explosion” has gone hand in hand with the industrial revolution n Estimates demonstrate the world’s urban population more than doubled since 1950 n Urban population doubled again by 2000

Urbanization n In 1950 29. 7% of the world population lived in urban areas. 83 metropolitan areas with one million population. 8 areas with 5 million pop. n By 2000 nearly 50% of the world population lived in urban areas. 372 metropolitan areas of a million pop. And more than 45 areas with above 5 million pop. n By 2025 almost 65% people will live in urban areas. n 75% of Americans live in urban/suburban environment.

World urbanization: Continuing to Increase

Percentage of population residing in urban areas, 1975 - 2030 Data source: UN Population Division, 1999

Trends in Urbanization, by Region Urban Population Percent Source: United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2003 Revision (medium scenario), 2004.

Trends in Urbanization, by Region • Currently, world regions differ greatly in their levels of urbanization. In more developed regions and in Latin America and the Caribbean, over 70 percent of the population is urban, whereas in Africa and Asia, under 40 percent of the population is urban. By 2030, however, the urban proportion of these two regions will exceed 50 percent. • By 2030, roughly 60 percent of the world’s population will be living in urban areas.

Largest Cities, Worldwide Millions 1950 2000 2015 Source: United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2003 Revision (medium scenario), 2004.

Largest Cities, Worldwide n The largest cities in the world are growing rapidly, and they are shifting from the more developed regions to the less developed regions. In 1950 the three largest cities were in more developed countries; by 2000, only Tokyo remained in the top three. n In 1950, New York was the largest city in the world, with a population of about 12 million. By 2015, the largest city worldwide is projected to be Tokyo, with triple this population size: 36 million.

Urbanization in Central America Population Living in Urban Areas Percent Source: United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2003 Revision (medium scenario), 2004.

Urbanization in Central American countries are urbanizing rapidly, at a pace similar to that of their South American neighbors 20 years earlier. Sixty percent or more of the population in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Panama is projected to be urban by 2010; the projection for Central America as a whole is 71 percent. n South America has nearly the highest rate of urbanization of any world region, projected to achieve 84 percent by 2010 (virtually tied with Northern Europe).

Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil

Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil n Sao Paulo epitomizes the dynamics of urbanization, especially capitalism. Starting as a coffee exporting center, it had less than 32000 inhabitants by 1872. Today metropolitan Sao Paulo is a primate city of more than 20 million. Economic development and flat land engendered population increase and sprawl, rising land costs in the center, and a boom in construction.

Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil n Economic success is denoted by the high-rises which are a mix of industrial, commercial and professional office blocks, as well as apartment complexes. City planning is only a recent phenomenon. Rural to urban migration is a serious problem and the city’s rapid growth has outstripped its ability to provide jobs, housing and adequate services.

n http: //www. openhistory. net/

C. Origin and Diffusion of the City n The earliest towns were around the Mediterranean Sea. n Babylon is the oldest recorded town.

The first cities n In seeking explanation for the origin of cities, we find a relationship between: n Areas of early agriculture n Permanent village settlement n The development of new social forms n Urban life n Early people were nomadic hunters and gatherers who constantly moved

The first cities n As they became increasingly efficient in gathering resources, their campsites became semi-permanent n As quantities of domesticated plants and animals increased settlement became more permanent n The first cities appeared in the Middle East n Developed about ten thousand years ago n Farming villages modest in size, rarely with more than 200 people n Probably organized on a kinship basis

The first cities n The first cities appeared in the Middle East n n Probably organized on a kinship basis Jarmo, one of the earliest villages n Located in present-day Iraq n Had 25 permanent dwellings clustered near grain storage facilities n Lacked plows, but cultivated local grains — wheat and barley n Domestic dogs, goats, and sheep may have been used for meat n Food supplies augmented by hunting and gathering

The first cities n In agricultural villages, all inhabitants were involved in some way in food procurement n Cities were more removed, physically and psychologically, from everyday agricultural activities n Food was supplied to the city n Not all city dwellers were involved in actual farming n Another class of city dwellers supplied services — such as technical skills, and religious interpretation

The first cities n Two elements were crucial to this social change n n Generation of agricultural surplus prerequisite for supporting non-farmers Stratified social system n Meaning the existence of distinct elite and lower classes n Facilitates the collection, storage, and distribution of resources n Well-defined channels of authority that exercise control over goods and people n These two set the stage for urbanization

Models for the rise of cities n Technical n The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl Wittfogel n Large-scale irrigation systems as prime mover behind urbanization n Higher crop yields resulted n Food surplus supported development of a large nonfarming population n Strong, centralized government, backed by an urban-based military n Farmers who resisted new authority were denied water

Models for the rise of cities n Technical n n The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl Wittfogel n Power elite needed for organizational coordination to ensure continued operation of the irrigation system n Labor specialization developed The hydraulic model cannot be applied to all urban hearths n Urban civilization blossomed without irrigation in parts of Mesoamerica n The question of how or why a culture might first develop irrigation

Models for the rise of cities n Religious n n n n Paul Wheatley suggests religion was the motivating factor behind urbanization Knowledge of meteorological and climatic conditions was considered to be within the domain of religion Religious leaders decided when and how to plant crops Successful harvests led to more support for this priestly class Priestly class exercised political and social control that held the city together In this scenario, cities are religious spaces functioning as ceremonial centers First urban clusters and fortification seen as defenses against spiritual demons or souls of the dead

Models for the rise of cities n Multiple factors n n n Distinction between economic, religious, and political functions were not always clear A king may have functioned as priest, healer, astronomer, and scribe In some ways secular and spiritual power was fused Attempting to isolate one trigger to urbanization is difficult, if not impossible It would be wiser to accept the role of multiple factors behind the changes leading to urban life Technical, religious, and political forces were often interlinked

Urban hearth areas n Where the first cities appeared, for example: Mesopotamia n The Nile Valley n Pakistan’s Indus River Valley n The Yellow River valley (or Huang Ho) in China n Mesoamerica n Next slide gives general dates of urban life emergence for each region n

Early urban life emergence

Urban hearth areas n Generally agreed first cities arose in Mesopotamia River valley of the Tigris and Euphrates in what is now Iraq n Cities, small by current standards, covered one-half to two square miles n Populations rarely exceeded 30, 000 n Densities could reach 10, 000 per square mile — comparable to today’s cities n Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics n

Urban hearth areas n Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics n Great importance accorded the symbolic center of the city, which was thought to be the center of the known world n Often demarcated by a vertical structure of monumental scale representing the point on Earth closest to the heavens n This symbolic center, or axis mundi, took different forms § The ziggurat in Mesopotamia § The palace or temple in China § The pyramid in Egypt and Mesoamerica § The Stupa in the Indus Valley

Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China

Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China n This is the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the most important ceremonial building in Beijing’s Forbidden City. The hall is set upon an auspicious number of three tiers. From the Gate of Supreme Harmony, the emperor would be carried on his palanquin above the “dragon pavement, ” carved with his dragon and other auspicious symbols such as waves, mountains and clouds.

Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China n The Forbidden City marked the inner sanctum of the Imperial city, a model of harmony and moral order expressing the Will of Heaven. n Ritual and cosmic correctness was imbued in city form through divination and orientation; cardinal axiality and concentricity; and, square configuration defined by walls and gates.

Urban hearth areas n Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics n In Mesopotamia, this area was known as the citadel and housed the elite who lived in relative luxury n Streets were paved, drains and running water were provided n Private sleeping quarters, bathtubs, and water closets were provided n Privileges did not extend to the city as a whole

Urban hearth areas n Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics n The city was oriented toward the four cardinal directions n Geometric form of city would reflect the order of the universe n Walls around the city delimited the known and ordered world from the outside chaos n Attempt to shape the form of the city according to the form of the universe n Thought essential to maintain harmony between human and spiritual worlds n Example of Angkor Thorn in India and Cambodia

Urban hearth areas n Life in Mesopotamia’s early cities from archaeological evidence n Dense housing, located just outside the citadel, was one or two stories tall composed of clay brick, and contained three or four rooms n Narrow unsurfaced streets had no drainage, and served as the community dump n At Ur, excavations show that garbage levels rose so high, new entrances were cut into second stories of the houses n Just inside the city wall, huts of mud and reed housed the lower classes

Urban hearth areas n Early cities of the Nile were not walled, suggesting a regional power structure kept cities from warring with each other n In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in a grid that consisted of 16 large blocks n The most important variations in living conditions occurred in Mesoamerica n Cities were less dense and covered large areas n Cities arose without benefit of the wheel, plow, metallurgy, and draft animals n Domestication of maize compensated for technological shortcomings n Maize yields several crops a year without irrigation in tropical climates

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas n The two hypotheses of how cities spread in prehistoric times n Cities evolved spontaneously as native peoples created new technologies and social institutions n Preconditions for urban life are too specific for most cultures to invent without contact with other urban areas n People must have learned these traits through contact with city dwellers n This scenario emphasized the diffusion of ideas and techniques

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas n Diffusionists believe ideas and techniques from Mesopotamia were shared with people in the Nile and the Indus River valley n Archaeological evidence documents trade ties between the three regions n Soapstone objects made in Tepe Yahyã, 500 miles east of Mesopotamia, have been found in ruins of both Mesopotamia and Indus Valley cities n Indus Valley writing and seals have been found in Mesopotamian urban sites n An alternate view is that trading took place only after these cities were well established

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas n There is evidence of contacts across the oceans between early urban dwellers of the New World and those of Asia and Africa n Unclear if this means urbanization was diffused to Mesoamerica n Maybe some trade routes existed between these peoples

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas n Little doubt diffusion is responsible for the dispersal of the city in historical times n City used as vehicle for imperial expansion n Urban life is carried outward in waves of conquest as empires expand n Initially, military controls newly won lands and sets up collection points for local resources n As collection points lose some military atmosphere they begin to show the social diversity of a city n Native people are slowly assimilated into the settlement as workers and may eventually control the city n The process repeats itself as the empire pushes outward

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas n Imposition of a foreign civilization on native peoples was often met with resistance n Examples of imperial city building dot history n Alexander the Great established at least 70 cities n The Roman Empire built literally thousand of cities, changing the face of Europe, North Africa, and Asia minor n The Persians, the Maurya Empire of India, the Han civilization of China, and the Greeks performed the same city-spreading task n In more recent times, European empires have used city resources to expand consolidate their power in colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia n Expansion diffusion has been critical in dispersing urban life over the surface of the Earth

Section III A. Impacts of rapid urbanization

Socio-cultural impacts n Cities have strong socio-cultural impacts on their surrounding rural areas. The mass media depicts city life as superior to rural life, the "standard" language is deemed that of the national capital, and better services are received in the city due to its wealth (Fogarty, 1995). n National symbols and values are generally more evident in urban than rural areas, since they attempt to bind otherwise isolated city dwellers. n The fertility rate in cities is often lower than in rural areas due to the absence of agriculture, the cost of children, food and living space in cities, and family planning.

Socio-economic impacts n As a city grows, the cost of housing and infrastructure also grows, since there are less water, land building material available, and greater congestion problems (Cunningham and Saigo, 1990). n As a city decays in this way, governments often do not meet the service needs of residents and urban development is dominated by private capital. n Unemployment grows, as do drug abuse, crime, and homelessness.

n Wealthier citizens move out of the city to reside in the suburbs, leaving behind a concentration of social minorities. n Where the government does not meet the service needs of the people, the "informal" sector is very important in providing, food, transport, cleaning, and other services, despite the government trying to ban them (Cunningham and Saigo, 1990).

Environmental impacts Wastes are a major problem in large cities (Cunningham and Saigo, 1990). n Air pollution results from over-dependence on motorized transport, and from the burning of coal to supply energy. n Water pollution results from poor sewerage facilities and disposal of industrial heavy metals into waterways. n Vast quantities of solid waste are produced as a result of packaging and consumption patterns, with very little landfill space available for disposal. n Traffic congestion, and noise pollution are also major environmental impacts of large cities. n Effect on the hydrosphere n Increasing Urban heat islands

Urbanization and Air Pollution

A breath of fresh air?

Upper Parramatta River catchment: Water pollution

Solid Waste: Landfills

Traffic Congestion

Urbanization and the Hydrosphere n Roads, parking lots and buildings do not absorb precipitation as well as vegetation and soil, increasing the potential for runoff and severe flooding. n Much of this water is then used in the process of evapotranspiration which cools the Earth's surface. n In many urban areas, water often quickly drains from streets into storm sewers reducing its ability to cool the local environment. n Often wetlands are completely altered in urban environments. Wetlands have a natural ability to regulate water flow and act to purify water of pollutants and sediment. Example: ?

Environmental Impact: Urban Heat Island Effect Urban boundary layer, or heat dome with temperatures 10°F (6°C) higher than the surrounding areas, which extends vertically above the city is Known as Urban heat island.

Heat Island Premises n Urban climates are altered significantly. n Temperature n Soil moisture n Cloud cover n Lightning n Rainfall n Planetary boundary layer

Why the urban heat island is occurring: Greater greenhouses that surround bigger towns: n Because of many dark buildings that swallows more energy then lighter-coloured materials and n Many big buildings that keep air not moving.

Urban Heat Island Population

The effect of urban heat island are: n higher air and surface water temperature n smaller amplitude of temperature n less quantity of rain and snow n rain and snow contain more acid and

Urban Heat and Mitigation n More vegetation n More wetlands n Higher albedo pavements n More trees to cast shadows on pavement n Roof top gardens n Improve air quality n Reduce air temperature n Reduce water drainage problems n Increase area of agricultural land

Regional impacts n Urban sprawl decreases the amount of open space, agricultural land, and natural habitats in regions surrounding cities. These regions are affected by the waste and pollution produced by the city, and are also depleted natural resources used by the city. As people move out of the city into surrounding regions, the cities expands, and further pollution and resource depletion occurs as people travel longer distances from home to work. n Rural-urban migration also has a strong impact on the demography of rural areas. There is often a pattern in such migration with respect to age and gender, and this migration can act as a sort of "brain drain", whereby rural areas are left with the least educated people, placing them in a position of even lower social and political power (Hutchinson and Hirsch, 1996).

B. What could be done

Urban renewal n It is a process of land re-development in areas of previous moderate to high density urban land use. n With the environmental, socio-economic, political, and cultural problems in cities there have been many struggles for urban reform or urban renewal (Cunningham and Saigo, 1990). For urban renewal to be effective, it must address the social and economic problems underlying problems in cities. It should also not disrupt existing communities, and should support the community in taking care of its own life.

Urban re-design n Suburbs which are greatly spread out with a low population have little sense of community and an inefficient public transport system. There are few alternatives for those who do not live in a traditional nuclear family, and culture is limited.

n Some of the ways cities could be redesigned. n land uses planned beforehand to avoid conflicts and environmental damage n social areas such as shopping malls, entertainment areas and pocket parks included n services and employment located closer to residential areas n city built to be human-scale, or the scale of bicycles or low speed vehicles

n variety of housing to cater for the elderly, single parents, and share-housing as well as nuclear families n cluster housing and housing superblocks to use space and public transport efficiently and give a strong sense of community n city self-sustaining by growing food locally, recycling wastes and water, using renewable energy sources, decreasing noise and pollution n support public participation in decision-making, and encourage a sense of historical, cultural, and environmental identity n encourage coordinated regional planning between local councils

Zoning n Zoning and land use plans can be important tools in reserving open space, protecting the environment, and limiting the extension of services, so as to contain urban sprawl. Reclaiming waterways is a creative and effective way of renewing the urban environment and providing a sense of community (GSF, 1997).

Transportation n Transportation is an especially important aspect of planning for sustainable cities (Cunningham and Saigo, 1990). Ideally transport should be safe, cheap, reliable, convenient, regular, and environmentally benign. Reducing the distance between work and home can promote human-scale transport such as walking or cycling. Public transport can be more efficient and convenient than individual motorised transport - as is the case in many German and Scandinavian cities -, with light rail and buses being particularly efficient (GSF, 1997).

Changing View of City Life n Since the 1960 s environmental movement, its become fashionable to think of wilderness as good and cities as bad. n This view is changing – people increasingly live in urban areas – people increasingly incorporate ‘natural’ beauty into cities – Rural and urban areas are linked economically. – Urban areas can be made more healthy and pleasing through urban planning. – Urban areas offer desirable cultural diversity. n Urban becoming the environment

New urbanism: Can it be solution to the negative effects of urbanization? n Design movement n goal is to reform all aspects of real estate development and n n n n urban planning. – urban retrofits – suburban infill neighborhoods walkable diverse range of housing-denser open space balanced development of jobs and housing. Aim to reduce the time people spend in traffic – rein in urban sprawl. historic preservation safe streets green building,

n Examples:

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Question to ponder n Should rural – urban migration be stopped to reduce the high level of urbanization in many developing countries? n Is new urbanism a myth or truth?