University of Jyvaskyla September 24 th 2014 Contemporary

University of Jyvaskyla September 24 th, 2014 Contemporary career models and organizational behavior Alessandro Lo Presti Seconda Università di Napoli, Department of Psychology

What’s important in this picture? Career, /kəˈrɪəʳ/ It comes from the French word «carriere» (XVI century) which means «road, racecourse» which, in turn, comes from the Latin word «via cararia» which means «track from wheeled vehicles (originated by the progressive erosion of the road)» . 2

Talk outline and agenda • Lecture • The time and space elements in careers; • Key contemporary issues: psychological contract, success, diversity, globalization; • Implications for HRM practice • Case study and discussion • Learning objectives: • To know the main traditional and contemporary career models and concepts • To understand their implications for organizational behaviors • To consider career issues in connection with other HRM issues 3

The time element in careers • Key question: how do careers develop over time? • A substantial number of models conceptualize careers as sequences of distinct stages; • Super’s (1957) and Levinson’s (1978) models imply the notion of career progression through time from a nonstochastic point of view; that is, they posit that each stage is partially built on the previous ones; 4

The life career rainbow (Super, 1957) 5

The time element in careers • Baruch and Bozionelos (2010) proposed a sequential career model featuring the following stages: • Foundation, starting from the early years of life and extending through childhood and adolescence; this stage is associated with the accumulation of basic knowledge as well as the development of fundamental values, attitudes, aspirations that serve as anchors that guide, constrain, stabilize and reinforce subsequent career direction and progress; • Career entry, which involves the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and qualifications to enter a job or a profession; • Advancement, which involves development of expertise in the job or profession as well as generally upward movements in the organizational hierarchy; 6

The time element in careers • Reinforcement, which involves implementation of decisions that have been made in the previous stages as refocusing on one’s job or returning to formal education for a career change; • Decline, characterized by consideration of and preparation for withdrawal from working life; • Retirement, which involves disengagement from the labor market. • The number and sequence of stages should be considered as a general indicator rather than as applying to every single individual; • Stages and timing of transitions may vary because of: a) variance across jobs in qualification (time) requirements; b) variance across individuals in the way their lives evolve; c) a general and progressive increase over time in educational qualifications that are required to enter the labor market. 7

The time element in careers • Minicyles feature miniature stages because career actors, mainly cause of organizational and societal changes, often need to evaluate their accomplishments and prospects and make decisions to reinvigorate or redirect their careers. 8

The space element in careers • Key question: where do careers take place? • Some preliminary considerations: • It is inappropriate to think of careers as always attached to particular jobs or professions or that they are composed of a natural evolution of roles within the same general occupational context (Baruch & Bozionelos, 2010); • Experiences that pertain to work roles and environments are the central, but not the only, aspect of careers; personal life, and its related roles and experiences also matter (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006); • The actual physical space where work takes place has been changing over the years; the equation «job=same location» has been replaced by work carried out at home, at multiple locations (e. g. , teleworking), or physical bases that periodically change (e. g. , expatriates) (Thatcher & Zhu, 2006); 9

The traditional career • It reflects the view that careers are bound to single organizations (which manage them; i. e. , corporate-bound careers) or particular professions that individuals normally join at the entry stage of their careers; • Traditional career models implicitly assume that careers generally fit that pattern; • It is traditionally associated with higher organizational commitment and a relational psychological contract; • This concept was shaped by the societal and work structures of the industrial and part of the postindustrial era; • It should be viewed as a metaphor that generally fits the mentality of careers in a particular era rather than as the norm in that era; 10

Man = working outside, wearing a worksuit, bread-winner, resolute Woman = working at home, wearing an apron, house-wife, submissive Beck-Gernsheim (1982) stated: traditional employment arrangements implied a «job for a man and a half» 11

What has it been happening in recent years? • Social changes affecting contemporary careers (Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014): • Business environment: as a result of the highly competitive global business environment, employees experience heightened job loss, fewer opportunities for vertical mobility with their current employer, and more extensive interorganizational mobility; • Technology: advances in information technology require increased electronic communication across national borders, increase the portability of work, and result in an increasing number of employees electronically tethered to their organizations; • Diversity of family structures: women, dual-earner partners, single parents, and employees responsible for their aging parents represent significant portions of the workforce and are likely to express a desire to balance their work with other parts of their lives; • Aging of the workforce: because many baby boomers remain in the workforce beyond traditional retirement age, the careers of many employees extend over a longer portion of their lives. 12

The boundaryless career • It comprises two dimensions: boundaryless mindset and organizational mobility preference (Briscoe, Hall & De. Muth, 2006); • A person with a boundaryless career mindset “navigates the changing work landscape by enacting a career characterized by different levels of physical and psychological movement” (Sullivan & Arthur, 2006); • Career actors will vary in the attitude that they hold toward initiating and pursuing work-related relationships across organizational boundaries. This does not necessarily imply physical nor employment mobility; • Thus a person with a decidedly high “boundaryless” attitude toward working relationships across organizational boundaries is comfortable, even enthusiastic about creating and sustaining active relationships through and beyond organizational boundaries. 13

The boundaryless career • Briscoe et al. (2006) found that boundaryless mindset and org. mobility preference were positively associated with proactive personality, openness to experience and mastery learning goal; • Briscoe and Finkelstein (2009) found that org. mobility preference was negatively associated with all the three dimensions of org. commitment, while boundaryless mindset did not (but it was positively associated with frequency of development opportunities); • Moreover they found a significant interaction… 14

Boundaryless mindset interacts with developmental opportunities (Briscoe & Finkelstein, 2009) Normative commitment increases among individuals with higher boundaryless mindset who receive frequent developmental opportunities, while sharply decreases when such opportunities lack. 15

The boundaryless career • Cakmak-Otluoglu (2012) found that boundaryless mindset was not associated with org. commitment while was positively associated with perceived supervisor support, moreover he found that org. mobility preference was negatively associated with all three dimensions of org. commitment and with perceived supervisor support; • Lo Presti, Manuti and Briscoe (under preparation) found that boundaryless mindset was not associated with org. commitment while was positively associated with org. citizenship behaviors, while org. mobility preference was negatively associated with all three dimensions of org. commitment and with org. citizenship behaviors. 16

The protean career • Individuals who hold protean career attitudes are intent upon using their own values (versus organizational values for example) to guide their career (“values-driven”) and take an independent role in managing their vocational behavior (“self-directed”); • An individual who did not hold protean attitudes would be more likely to “borrow” external standards, as opposed to internally developed ones, and be more likely to seek external direction and assistance in behavioral career management as opposed to being more proactive and independent (Briscoe, Hall & De. Muth, 2006); • While most protean individuals might in fact exhibit more mobility and a learning orientation, it is posited that mobility and learning may be correlates of a protean career, but not necessary components of it; 17

The protean career • Briscoe et al. (2006) found that self-directed career management and value driven orientation were positively associated with proactive personality, openness to experience, career authenticity and mastery learning goal; • Briscoe and Finkelstein (2009) found that value driven orientation negatively correlated with normative commitment; • Cakmak-Otluoglu (2012) found that self-directed career management negatively correlated with continuance commitment while positively correlated with affective commitment and perceived supervisor support. He also found that value driven orientation negatively correlated with normative commitment; 18

The protean career • Lo Presti, Manuti and Briscoe (under preparation) found that selfdirected career management positively correlated with affective and normative commitment and org. citizenship behaviors; • They also found that value-driven orientation positively correlated with normative and continuance commitment and org. citizenship behaviors. 19

A cross-cultural insight on career conceptualizations • With concern to the question of universality of career models, it should be noted that a large proportion of the world population (mostly in developing countries) might not have a cohesive set of work experiences that fits our idea of career and may not even have a concept of it (Baruch & Bozionelos, 2010); • The lives, work and non-work, of many people are still quite similar to the lives of human generations before the industrial revolution, the stage in history that gave rise to those sequential systematic work experiences we today conceive as career (Baruch, 2006); 20

A cross-cultural insight on career conceptualizations • On one side, it should be acknowledged that, as the notion of traditional careers captures well careers in the Soviet Union as well as in China until the 1980 s, the notions of protean and boundaryless careers have become relevant to Cindia and other developing countries which, after the 1980 s have been largely, though not entirely, operating according to capitalist principles; • On the other side, Beck (1999) coined the term “Brazilianization of the West” explaining the convergence, in terms of economic development and labour market dynamics (i. e. , precariousness irruption) between the First World and the Third World. 21

K e y Careers and psychological contract Career success i s s u e s Diversity and careers Globalization and careers 22

Careers and psychological contract • Career attitudes are associated with particular mentalities that include expectations and obligations; • The psychological contract refers to perceptions regarding reciprocal obligations between the employee and the employer; • The extent to which employees perceive the psychological contract as honored or breached is related to key outcomes such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, actual performance, extrarole behaviors, etc. (Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski & Bravo, 2007); 23

A short interlude on psychological contracts Long-term and specified performance terms Short-term and specified performance terms Long-term and not specified performance terms Short-term and not specified performance terms 24

Careers and psychological contract • While the notion of traditional career is compatible with a relational psychological contract, employment insecurity, unclear career paths, and involuntary employer changes have largely stripped the psychological contract from such relational elements (Brown, 2005); • Many career actors have now loyalty to their employers or are reluctant to commit to corporate careers, factors that reinforce contemporary forms of careers, such as the boundaryless one; • This cycle may be difficult to break, especially considering the current economic climate and the fact that the new psychological contracts may have been embedded in the mentality of the workforce (Baruch & Bozionelos, 2010); 25

Careers and psychological contract (Lo Presti et al. ) Does employee’s psychological contract interact with career attitudes in predicting organizational behaviors? 26

Careers and psychological contract • The new psychological contract, especially the balanced one, places emphasis on employability, which refers to work-centered adaptability that enhances individuals’ ability to identify and seize career opportunities by means of facilitating intra- and interorganizational job movement (Fugate et al. , 2004; Van der Heijde & Van der Heijden, 2006); • De Vos et al. (2011) found that self-perceived employability mediated the relationship between, on one side, employee participation in competency development initiatives and perceived support for competency development and, on the other, two indicators of career success: career satisfaction and perceived marketability. 27

Career success • Key question: what does make a successful career? • This notion is inherent in the conceptualization of careers: • Traditionally, success was considered in terms of attainment of status in the organization or profession, pace of vertical advancement, occupational prestige and financial attainment; this usually refers to the objective or extrinsic view (Heslin, 2005); • In line with new career attitudes, other facets of success are individually identified by career actors on the basis of their evaluations using their personal values, beliefs and aspirations; in these judgments individuals use both self and other reference points and consider past as well as prospective accomplishments; this represents the subjective of intrinsic view (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986); • Ng and colleagues (2005) found correlations between measures of objective and subjective success in the range of. 18 and. 30 – it means they are related yet distinct constructs; 28

Career success human capital view • It suggests that organizational rewards, such as hierarchical and income progression, are distributed according to relevant competencies (general and job-specific human capital) which, de facto, contribute to organizational performance; • Ng and colleagues (2005) found that an array of human capital variables was related to both number of promotions and financial attainment; • However, it should be kept in mind that career success must not be treated as tantamount to job performance, because objective success is determined by the joint effect of multiple work-related outcomes, not all of which are under the control of career actors; • Potential explanations lie in the imperfections of organizational systems in evaluating employee performance (Lathman & Mann, 2006) as well as the presence of factors that are not directly relevant to job performance but nevertheless affect career prospects; 29

Career success structural view • It places emphasis on the influence of structural factors on career progression (Sonnenfeld et al. , 1988): • organizational factors as structure, size, type of ownership, criteria for allocation of organizational rewards, etc. • Environmental factors or labour market forces as type of industry, economic circumstances, etc. • Societal factors as educational systems, employment legislation, etc. • At this point, it should be noted that it is erroneous to view career actors as passive in front of structural and, secondarily, human capital factors; instead, it is more appropriate to view them as improvising actors who navigate within the space element of careers; 30

Career success social capital view • This approach asserts that factors going beyond structure and human capital should be taken into cognizance in order to develop an exhaustive description of what determines career success (Seibert et al. , 2001); • Social capital signifies resources that an individual has at one’s disposal by means of own relationship ties with other individuals within a particular social structure; • An operationalization that facilitates the development of more fine-grained advices for individual career management distinguish between: • Mentoring, which refers to an intensive developmental relationship between two persons of unequal status or power, the mentor and the protegé, in which the former provides the latter with career-instrumental and socio-emotional support; • Network ties, which encompass the totality of individuals’ interpersonal ties excluding mentoring ones; 31

Successful and/or sustainable careers? • Current career trends – the rise in precarious work, growing job and economic insecurity, longer work hours, etc. – require that careers’ scholars concentrate on career sustainability, that is protecting and fostering (rather than depleting) human and career development with a focus on balance and renewal (Newman, 2011); • There is a growing disconnect between the mystique of what careers are thought to encompass and the experiences of many individuals; the myths that hard work, long hours and continuous employment promote career well-being are not aligned with 21 st century reality (Moen & Roehling, 2005); 32

Successful and/or sustainable careers? • Kossek et al. (2013) proposed that a sustainable career is characterized by: • • Sufficient security to meet economic needs; Fit with one’s core career and life values; Flexibility and capability to evolve to suit one’s changing needs and interests; Renewability such that an individual has regular opportunities for rejuvenation; • Greenhaus and Kossek (2014) also added: • Dynamic ongoing work-home interdependencies over the life course; • Questioning the career as a foreground and the rest of life as background over time; • Career-life trajectories. 33

Diversity and careers • Key questions: do diverse people expect different careers? • Diversity refers to heterogeneity among members of the workforce according to one or more salient characteristics (Bell, 2007); • Diversity is pertinent to careers because it apparently relates to variance in employment patterns and opportunities; individuals may pursue different career goals or be offered different career options, depending on the group they belong to: • Surface-level diversity refers to differences in overtly identifiable features that are usually rooted in biological differences: sex, race, age, etc. • Deep-level diversity refers to heterogeneity in attitudes, beliefs, values, or even skills, knowledge and experiences; 34

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Diversity and careers • From a career perspective, it is surface level diversity which matters, insofar it is more likely to evoke immediate reactions that pertain to bias and prejudice, which give rise to discrimination (Dipboye & Halverson, 2004); • Ng and et. (2005) found significant disadvantages for women in both number of promotions and financial attainment; • The term glass ceiling has been coined to describe the presence of an invisible organizational barrier that prevents women and other groups from advancing into powerful positions; 36

Diversity and careers • A number of accounts, not mutually exclusive, have been offered for the observed gender differences in objective career success: • Different expectations and priorities, rooted partly in socialization (Valcour & Ladge, 2008); • Human capital and career path differences (Dahlmann et al. , 2008; Penner, 2008); • Social capital and direct discrimination (Li et al. , 2008); • With regard to social capital differences, women’s deficit can be explained by: • Women’s lower capacity, as relative newcomers in organizational life, to create career-instrumental social capital, as well as their alleged tendency to underestimate its importance for career advancement (Van Emmerik, 2006); • High degree of homophily in women’s social capital ties; it means that they do not integrate into male networks, which carry most career-enhancing information and influence because of the traditional male dominance of organizational power structures (Roth, 2004); 37

Diversity and careers • Women’s apparent disadvantage in objective career success is not reflected in their subjective career evaluations (Ng et al. , 2005); • This paradox can be accounted for in terms of differential career expectations for men and women (Powell & Eddleston, 2008) as well as in terms of alternative domains from which women can draw a sense of achievement and satisfaction; • Mainiero and Sullivan’s (2005) kaleidoscope career model proposes that relationships are pivotal in women’s careers in terms of: • Authenticity, or being true to oneself in the midst of the constant interplay of personal development with work and nonwork issues; • Balance, defined as making decisions in a way that work and nonwork aspects of life form a coherent whole; • Challenge, or engagement in activities that demand responsibility and allow learning and growth. 38

Globalization and careers cultural differences • Career concepts that have been developed with economically developed societies as reference points may have limited or no applicability in certain areas or populations of the globe (ILO, 2009); • There is some debate (Bozionelos, 2006) about the relevance of certain factors that are associated with career benefits within particular national contexts with respect to other contexts (e. g. mentoring, skills, etc. ); • The movement of labor across national borders has increased the prevalence of another form of diversity, cultural diversity (Chope, 2008), which imposes additional challenges for organizations in terms of managing it with respect to their career systems; 39

Globalization and careers expatriation • Corporate-sponsored expatriation applies to individuals who are sponsored by a parent-country organization to go to a mission abroad and implies the management of employees’ careers before their expatriation, during their stay in the host country and upon their return as repatriates (Baruch & Altman, 2002); • Because repatriate turnover is apparently double the rate of the rest of the workforce, organizations are requested to enhance career prospects for their repatriates using systems such as (Bolino, 2007): • Pre-departure career planning; • Systematic career revision during the assignment; • Allocation of a formal mentor based in the parent country; 40

Globalization and careers expatriation • A complementary account posits that expatriation has mostly positive effects on career success but not necessarily as this is viewed from the traditional corporate-bound career perspective; • That is, career actors may, upon return, opt to “cash” the human capital gained by the expatriate experience by means of an interorganizational career move that is seen as providing greater career gains (Lazarova et al. , 2009); • The implication is that organizations may not have full control over retaining their repatriates, regardless of the quality of their expatriation and repatriation management systems; 41

Globalization and careers expatriation • Both for intra- or inter-organizational career success, a key aspect for expatriates upon return appears to be proactivity, in particular (Kraimer et al. , 2009): • Seeking other expatriate assignments with developmental value or in subsidiaries with strategic importance; • Actively maintaining and using ones’ social capital in the parent country, which can provide information on developments back home and can prevent the «out of sight, out of mind» syndrome; • Seeking a repatriate position that allows use and recognition of the skills and experience acquired while abroad; • Actively engaging social capital for career-related information and support, and scanning the job market for inter-organizational career moves. 42

Summing up, before going on… • Contemporary organizations must look at careers both in terms of human resource management and development; • Career actors are now less likely to play out their careers in one or a small number of organization, experience frequent upward mobility within an organization, feel substantial job security; • Recent trends depict career actors that are now more responsible, proactive, interested in challenge, personal and professional development, seek reduced-workload arrangements, make career decisions that accommodate their family or personal circumstances, adjust their timing of retirement to meet lifestyle needs; 43

OB theories HRM functions Personality analysis Individual perception Race and ethnicity Adult learning Organizational design Technological change Leadership styles Motivation Alienation Career issues Match organizational career prospects with individual career aspirations in terms of values, opportunities, diversity, expatriation, etc. selection Structure interviews and personality tests to «match» the right person into right job training Support employee career development with “for both Designing orientation and training workshops parties” appropriate training in terms of professional and personal development, leadership, org. for new employees, job redesign and leadership to encourage informal learning and performance, change management, etc. change Organizational socialization and newcomers’ career development Rewards management Motivation Communication Psychological contract Group dynamics Appraisal Conflict Workplace resistance Groupthink Employment relations Adapted from Sawchuk et al. (2010) HRM practices Pay systems, bonuses and benefit packages to maximize individual performance Link career advancement to appropriate intrinsic and extrinsic rewards Link with psychological contract issues Interview appraisal, pay policy, training policy, disciplinary policy Collect data that can support the organization in managing employees’ career development and provide employees with adequate feedback about their actual performance and prospect opportunities Handling individual and group grievances, communication of policies, negotiating with unions Offer equal career opportunities, late-career workers, outplacement, work-home needs and negotiation, etc. 44

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