Unit I 5 Hours Introduction to Research General

Unit I : 5 Hours Introduction to Research: General Dr Asha P Shetty November 24, 2020 1

Objectives On completion of the unit you are able to: • Define research • Identify the need and scope of the research • Describe the research process • Distinguish various approaches/types/kinds of research November 24, 2020 2

Introduction • Re + search • Researchers Vs Research Project • Scientific Vs Problem solving November 24, 2020 3

Knowledge • what is known to be (facts) • what is believed to be. Delivered through the use of some logic or empirical testing. Fact is truth supported by repeated observation and replication November 24, 2020 4

Circularity aspect of fact, observation & theory Observations New fact November 24, 2020 Logical theory 5

§ Facts help initiate theory and enable us reformulate it § Facts cause rejection of theories, which do not fit into it § Facts change the focus of orientation § Facts clarify and refine theory November 24, 2020 6

Methods of acquiring knowledge a) Tradition b) Authority c) Clinical experience and trial and error, Intuition d) Logical Reasoning e) Assembled information (e. g. , quality improvement data) f) Disciplined Research November 24, 2020 7

Research • Systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems. -Polit & Beck, 2004 November 24, 2020 8

Research - Definition • Systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. • Research is the systematic investigation of phenomena of interest in order to describe, explain or predict variables. • Research – systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena and / or relationships among natural phenomena. November 24, 2020 9

Need for Research 1) Provide the best type of evidence for informing professional’ decisions, actions and interactions with clients when the actions are evidence based they become clinically appropriate, cost-effective and result in positive outcomes for clients. 2) Become increasingly accountable to their clients. November 24, 2020 10

Need for Research (Contd. ) 3) Helps in identifying the social relevance and effectiveness of practice. Help in reducing costs of care and at the same time improve health care outcomes. 4) Help in understanding the different dimensions of profession. It enables in describing characteristics of a particular situation, to explain phenomena that must be considered in planning care, and to initiate activities to promote desired client behaviour November 24, 2020 11

Research Objectives Statement of purpose The researcher’s summary of the overall study goal Research aims or objectives The specific accomplishments to be achieved by conducting the study November 24, 2020 12

Research objective • Objectives describe what researcher wants to achieve on completion of the research study. It should be written as observable and achievable November 24, 2020 13

SMART • • • Specific Measurable Achievable Relevant Time Bound November 24, 2020 14

Basic concepts • Operational Definition: Specifies the operations that researchers must perform to collect the required information. It should correspond to conceptual definition. • An operational definition assigns meaning to a construct or a variable by specifying the activities or operation necessary to measure it. November 24, 2020 15

• Data : Pieces of information obtained in the course of investigation • Qualitative data – narrative descriptions • Coding – It is an operation to make research data amenable to analysis November 24, 2020 16

• Reliability – Accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study • Validity: Whethere is evidence to support the assumption that the methods are really measuring the abstract concepts they intend to measure • Bias- It is an influence that produces a distortion in the study results November 24, 2020 17

• An assumption is a proposition that is taken for granted, in other words, that is treated for the sake of a given discussion as if it were known to be true. • An assumption is a statement that is believed to be true. • It is a proposition whose truth is either self evident or has been satisfactorily established by earlier research November 24, 2020 18

Delimitations • There may be many aspects of the problem that need to be explored, but it is difficult to cover all aspects in a single research study, because of limited time, finance, facilities and other reasons. • Delimitations indicate the cut off points beyond which the researcher does not intend to probe. • It includes those restrictions that the researcher placed on the study prior to gathering data November 24, 2020 19

Limitations • The limitations indicate the weaknesses of the entire study, as the researcher perceives them. • The reader looks for the shortcomings for two reasons: 1. To identify whether the researcher has recognized the flaws. 2. To know the difficulties the researcher has faced which are valuable for future researcher. November 24, 2020 20

Variables • A characteristic or quality that takes on different values, i. e. , that varies from one person to the next • Examples: • Blood type • Weight • Length of stay in hospital November 24, 2020 21

Definition: A characteristic or attribute of a person or object that varies (i. e. takes on different values) within the population under study (e. g. : age, Heart rate etc. ). A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned e. g. SES is a variable November 24, 2020 22

Variables § are the central building blocks of quantitative studies § should be defined accurately § should be quantifiable – by valid & relative means November 24, 2020 23

Heterogeneity • Heterogeneous: attribute is extremely varied in group under observation. • Homogeneous: the variability is limited November 24, 2020 24

TYPES OF VARIABLES Independent Variable : It’s a variable that stands above and is not dependent on any other. It is stated first in a hypothesis, followed by the dependent variable In experimental research the independent variable is manipulated by the researcher, it is the presumed “cause” & its effect on the dependent variable is observed. criterion variable November 24, 2020 25

Dependent Variable • It is the effect of the action of the independent variable and cannot exist by itself. • It is the outcome variable. • The independent variable is the presumed cause for the resulting effect on the dependent variable • Example: Smoking (IV) Lung cancer (DV) November 24, 2020 26

• Variables are not inherently dependent or independent. A dependent variable in one study could be an independent variable in another study. November 24, 2020 27

Extraneous Variable • An uncontrolled variable/intervening variable/confounding variable comes between the dependent & the independent variable. • Greatly influences the results of a study. • These lie outside the interest, or the control of the researcher. But can be minimized by the research design & through statistics. November 24, 2020 28

Active Vs Attribute Variables Active variable - that are manipulated or created Attribute variables – measured or observed variables that cannot be manipulated or influenced by the researcher but preexist as characteristics in the investigation. E. g. intelligence, aptitude, attitude ; yet they may be present or vary under population under study. Organismic variable: age , gender, race, heredity November 24, 2020 29

Continuous , discrete Vs Categorical Variables • Continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of values within a certain range. E. g. height, weight. • By contrast, a discrete variable is one that has a finite number of values between any two points, representing discrete quantities. E. g. , marital status, gender. November 24, 2020 30

Categorical Variables • • belong to a kind of measurement called nominal i. e. they are two or more subsets of the set of objects being measured. take only a handful of discrete non quantitative values. November 24, 2020 31

Relationships A bond or connection between variables. • Cause-and-effect (causal) relationship (e. g. , cigarette smoking and lung cancer) • Functional (associative) relationship (e. g. , gender and life expectancy) November 24, 2020 32

• ROL: Literature review is an organized written presentation of what has been published on a topic by scholars. • Subjects or study participants or respondents. Informants or key informants. • Study / investigation/ research project. • Researcher or investigator or scientist • Collaborative research. • Project Director or Principal investigator • Co- investigators November 24, 2020 33

• • Consultants Funder or sponsor Reviewers Peer reviewers Mentors Site – overall location for the research Settings – more specific places where data collection occurs • Hyothesis November 24, 2020 34

Hypotheses • The researcher’s predictions about relationships among variables • The term derives from the Greek, hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose. “ • Translates the research problem and purpose into clear explanation or prediction of the expected results or outcomes of the study November 24, 2020 35

Definition: • Research hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two or more variables. • A hypothesis is a formal statement of the expected relationships between two or more variable in a specified population • Hypothesis can be considered as intelligent hunches, educated guesses or predictions that can assist the researcher in seeking the solution or answer to the research questions November 24, 2020 36

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS • It is testable i. e. , Variables, should be measurable • It is logical • It is directly related to the research problem • It is simple, clear and concise • It represents a single unit or subset of the problem. • It is factually and theoretically based. • It states a relationship between Variables. • It sets the limits of the study. November 24, 2020 37

PURPOSE OF HYPOTHESIS: • To guide scientific enquiry • Hypothesis testing is a means of generating knowledge • Provide bridge between theory and reality they unify two domains. • It provides a statement about a specific relationship between phenomena that allows this relationship to be tested empirically November 24, 2020 38

ELEMENTS OF HYPOTHESIS: • • • Dependent and independent variables. Some type of relationship between independent and dependent variable. the direction of change , ie. stating “ more or less”, “higher or lower” increased or decreased it mentions the subjects ie, the population being studied Level of significance November 24, 2020 39

Hypotheses how do I go about developing hypotheses? Processes are • Induction • Deduction November 24, 2020 40

Inductive hypotheses • Is a generalization based on observed relationships. • Researchers observe certain patterns, trends, or associations among phenomena and then use the observations as a basis for predictions • E. g. a patient who ask lot of questions to pain- has more difficult time in learning appropriate post operative procedures November 24, 2020 41

Deductive hypotheses • These have a starting point theories that are applied to particular situations. • E. g. all human beings have red and white blood cells. • Susan is a human being • Therefore Susan has red and white blood cells November 24, 2020 42

Types of hypotheses 1. Simple vs. complex or multivariate 2. Directional vs. non- directional 3. Research vs. statistical November 24, 2020 43

Simple Versus Complex Hypotheses Simple hypothesis: Expresses a predicted relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable X y Fig. 2: Schematic representation of simple hypothesis November 24, 2020 44

Complex hypothesis States a predicted relationship between two or more independent variables and/or two or more dependent variables x 1 x 2 y Fig. 3: Schematic representation of complex hypothesis November 24, 2020 45

. y 1 x 2 y 2 Fig. 3: Schematic representation of complex hypothesis 46 November 24, 2020

Directional Versus Non directional Hypotheses Directional hypothesis Specific prediction about the direction of a relationship. (+ve or – ve) • A directional hypothesis is one that specifies not only the existence but the expected direction of the relationship between variables. E. g. Older patients are at a greater risk of falling than younger ones November 24, 2020 47

Non Directional hypothesis Predicts the existence of a relationship, not its direction Does not stipulate in advance the direction • E. g. There is a significant relationship between patient’s age and the risk of falling November 24, 2020 48

Research Versus Null Hypotheses Research hypothesis States the actual prediction of a relationship Statements of expected relationship between variables • Research hypothesis also referred to as Substantive/declarative/scientific/ alternative hypothesis. November 24, 2020 49

Statistical or null hypothesis • Expresses the absence of a relationship (used only in statistical testing) hypothesis • Null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the dependent and independent variables November 24, 2020 50

Research – Types • Basic or fundamental Research Basic research is undertaken to extend the base of knowledge in a discipline, or to formulate or refine a theory. i. e. , generating new knowledge (Pure research) November 24, 2020 51

2. Applied Research or Practice Research or Action Research • Applied research focuses on finding solutions to existing problems and thus tends to be greater, immediate utility for evidence based practice. i. e. , concerned with using knowledge to solve immediate problems • In general, the findings from applied research may pose questions for basic research, and results of basic research often suggest clinical applications. November 24, 2020 52

Types of approaches • Quantitative • Qualitative

Research – Types (Contd. ) • Quantitative research • Systematic, progresses logically through a series of steps according to specified plan of action. • Generate hunches and are tested. Tight control over context. Employs techniques of control. Empirical evidence is gathered 24 -Nov-20 • Qualitative research • Systematic – the pre specified plan is not rigid • No hunches • Heavy emphasis on understanding the human experiences as it is lived. Through collection and analysis of qualitative materials that are narrative and subjective. Asha P Shetty 54

• Quantitative research • Uses formal data collection instruments • The study findings are generalizable. • Human experience is reduced to few defined concepts • Objective 24 -Nov-20 • Qualitative research • No rigid structuring of data collection instruments • Seeks patterns • Emphasize the dynamic, holistic and individual aspects of human experience and tries to capture it in totality • Subjective Asha P Shetty 55

Major Classes of Quantitative Research Experimental research Researchers actively introduce an intervention or treatment Non-experimental research Researchers collect data without intervening or introducing treatments

Major Research Traditions in Qualitative Research • Grounded theory research • Phenomenological research • Ethnographic research

Any questions? ? ? November 24, 2020 58