Unit 5 EntityRelationship Model Chap 6 Database Design

Unit 5 Entity-Relationship Model 英文版：Chap 6 “Database Design and the E-R Model” 中文版：第 2章 “實體關係模型” Database System Concepts, 5 th Ed. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan See www. db-book. com for conditions on re-use

E-R Diagram for a Banking Enterprise Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Chapter 6: Entity-Relationship Model n 6. 1. Design Process n 6. 2. E-R Model (名詞定義) n 6. 3. Constraints (對模型提出限制 e. g. 對應數目) n 6. 4. E-R Diagram (模型解說) n 6. 5. E-R Design Issues (其他議題) n 6. 6. Weak Entity Sets n 6. 7. Extended E-R Features n 6. 8. Design for the Banking Enterprise n 6. 9. Reduction to Relation Schemas n 6. 10. Database Design n 6. 11. UML Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Design Process n Relational Database l Application Layer: SQL/ Host language l Relational Model: Relational Algebra l Logical Database Design 4 Normalization 4 Semantic l Modeling, i. e. , E-R model Physical Database Design 4 Storage and File Structure 4 Indexing and Hashing 4 Query Process & Optimization 4 Transactions 4 Concurrency Control 4 Recovery System Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

陳品山教授，1968 台大電機系畢業 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Modeling n A database can be modeled as: l a collection of entities, l relationship among entities. 與 Relational Database 相比較 (1) Table entity set (atomic P-key), relationship set (2) Attribute, domain 定義互通 n An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects. l Example: specific person, company, event, plant n Entities have attributes l Example: people have names and addresses n An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share the same properties. l Example: set of all persons, companies, trees, holidays Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

n Break (example: ER-model of “S, P, SP”) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Attributes n An entity is represented by a set of attributes, that is descriptive properties possessed by all members of an entity set. Example: customer = (customer_id, customer_name, customer_street, customer_city ) loan = (loan_number, amount ) n Domain – the set of permitted values for each attribute n Attribute types: l Simple and composite attributes. l Single-valued and multi-valued attributes 4 l Example: multivalued attribute: phone_numbers Derived attributes 4 Can be computed from other attributes 4 Example: age, given date_of_birth Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagram With Composite, Multivalued, and Derived Attributes Preview Composite Key Multivalued Derived Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Composite Attributes Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Entity Sets customer and loan customer_id customer_ name street city S Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 11 loan_ number amount P ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Example (“S, P, SP”) price SN P SP color city Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 Pname PN Sname S status qty 5. 12 weight ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Relationship Sets n A relationship is an association among several entities Example: Hayes depositor A-102 customer entity relationship set account entity n A relationship set is a mathematical relation among n 2 entities, each taken from entity sets {(e 1, e 2, … en) | e 1 E 1, e 2 E 2, …, en En} where (e 1, e 2, …, en) is a relationship l Example: (Hayes, A-102) depositor Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 13 實例如： Depositor Borrower SP table … ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Relationship Set borrower Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Relationship Sets (Cont. ) n An attribute can also be property of a relationship set. n For instance, the depositor relationship set between entity sets customer and account may have the attribute access-date 以 SP為例: price, qty Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Degree of a Relationship Set n Refers to number of entity sets that participate in a relationship set. n Relationship sets that involve two entity sets are binary (or degree two). Generally, most relationship sets in a database system are binary. n Relationship sets may involve more than two entity sets. 4 Example: Suppose employees of a bank may have jobs (responsibilities) at multiple branches, with different jobs at different branches. Then there is a ternary relationship set between entity sets employee, job, and branch n Relationships between more than two entity sets are rare. Most relationships are binary. (More on this later. ) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Chapter 6: Entity-Relationship Model n 6. 1. Design Process n 6. 2. E-R Model n 6. 3. Constraints n 6. 4. E-R Diagram n 6. 5. E-R Design Issues n 6. 6. Weak Entity Sets n 6. 7. Extended E-R Features n 6. 8. Design for the Banking Enterprise n 6. 9. Reduction to Relation Schemas n 6. 10. Database Design n 6. 11. UML Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Mapping Cardinality Constraints n Express the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a relationship set. n Most useful in describing binary relationship sets. n For a binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be one of the following types: l One to one 實際轉化為 Table 時 l One to many l Many to one One-to-One: 可省去代表Relationship Set 的表格，三者同在一表中。 l Many to many One-to-Many: Many-to-One: 此二情形之Relationship Set 必須作表，其 Candidate Key 與 Many 端相同，甚至可合併到 Many 端去(非完全參與用null)。 Many-to-Many: 就同前例SP表，須使用 Composite key Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Mapping Cardinalities One to one One to many Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any elements in the other set Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Mapping Cardinalities Many to one Many to many Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any elements in the other set Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Keys n A super key of an entity set is a set of one or more attributes whose values uniquely determine each entity. n A candidate key of an entity set is a minimal super key l Customer_id is candidate key of customer l account_number is candidate key of account n Although several candidate keys may exist, one of the candidate keys is selected to be the primary key. Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Keys for Relationship Sets n The combination of primary keys of the participating entity sets forms a super key of a relationship set. l (customer_id, account_number) is the super key of depositor l NOTE: this means a pair of entity sets can have at most one relationship in a particular relationship set. (可使用 multivalued, 如必要時亦可另開 entity set 再用 many to one 連接這兩個 entity sets) 4 Example 1: if we wish to track all access_dates to each account by each customer, we cannot assume a relationship for each access. We can use a multivalued attribute though 4 Example 2: Team – match ((game#)) – Team n Must consider the mapping cardinality of the relationship set when deciding what are the candidate keys (many-to-one 有合併機會) n Need to consider semantics of relationship set in selecting the primary key in case of more than one candidate key (例如外加“配對編號”) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Chapter 6: Entity-Relationship Model n 6. 1. Design Process n 6. 2. E-R Model n 6. 3. Constraints n 6. 4. E-R Diagram n 6. 5. E-R Design Issues n 6. 6. Weak Entity Sets n 6. 7. Extended E-R Features n 6. 8. Design for the Banking Enterprise n 6. 9. Reduction to Relation Schemas n 6. 10. Database Design n 6. 11. UML Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagrams n Rectangles represent entity sets. n Diamonds represent relationship sets. n Lines link attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationship sets. n Ellipses represent attributes l Double ellipses represent multivalued attributes. l Dashed ellipses denote derived attributes. n Underline indicates primary key attributes (will study later) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagram With Composite, Multivalued, and Derived Attributes Composite Key Multivalued Derived Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Relationship Sets with Attributes 如前例: SP. price/ qty Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Roles n Entity sets of a relationship need not be distinct n The labels “manager” and “worker” are called roles; they specify how employee entities interact via the works_for relationship set. n Roles are indicated in E-R diagrams by labeling the lines that connect diamonds to rectangles. n Role labels are optional, and are used to clarify semantics of the relationship 經理也是員，但他只有一個。 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Cardinality Constraints n We express cardinality constraints by drawing either a directed line ( ), signifying “one, ” or an undirected line (—), signifying “many, ” between the relationship set and the entity set. n One-to-one relationship: l A customer is associated with at most one loan via the relationship borrower l A loan is associated with at most one customer via borrower Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

One-To-Many Relationship n In the one-to-many relationship a loan is associated with at most one customer via borrower, a customer is associated with several (including 0) loans via borrower 另以 S SP ─ P 說明之。 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Many-To-One Relationships n In a many-to-one relationship a loan is associated with several (including 0) customers via borrower, a customer is associated with at most one loan via borrower 另以 S ─ SP P 說明之。 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Many-To-Many Relationship n A customer is associated with several (possibly 0) loans via borrower n A loan is associated with several (possibly 0) customers via borrower 另以 S ─ SP ─ P 說明之。 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Participation of an Entity Set in a Relationship Set n Total participation (indicated by double line): every entity in the entity set participates in at least one relationship in the relationship set l E. g. participation of loan in borrower is total 4 every loan must have a customer associated to it via borrower n Partial participation: some entities may not participate in any relationship in the relationship set l Example: participation of customer in borrower is partial 此圖可提醒 Programmer 設計警示 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 See also "SP == P" case. 5. 32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Alternative Notation for Cardinality Limits n Cardinality limits can also express participation constraints 1. . * 與上頁之圖同義。 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

One-to-Many v. s. Cardinality Limits price qty P SP S status Pname PN Sname SN color city weight 兩者效果相同，但上圖意義較明確 price SN status 1. . * SP P (1) one-to-many: PN 決定 SN, i. e. , 每種物料最多只能由一家專賣 (2) SN 出現在 “SP”至少一次, i. e. , 每個供貨商至少賣 1種以上物料 (無箭號之 1. . * 可用雙實線圖示) qty Pname PN Sname SP S S city Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 0. . 1 color S 2. . 5 SP P (1) one-to-many: PN 即決定 SN (2) 每個供貨商供貨 2~5 種物料 P weight 5. 34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagram with a Ternary Relationship C S C P SP S P (SN, PN, …. . , cid) (SN, PN, Cid) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 SP 5. 35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Cardinality Constraints on Ternary Relationship n We allow at most one arrow out of a ternary (or greater degree) relationship to indicate a cardinality constraint n E. g. an arrow from works_on to job indicates each employee works on at most one job at any branch. n If there is more than one arrow, there are two ways of defining the meaning. l E. g a ternary relationship R between A, B and C with arrows to B and C could mean 1. each A entity is associated with a unique entity from B and C or 2. each pair of entities from (A, B) is associated with a unique C entity, and each pair (A, C) is associated with a unique B l Each alternative has been used in different formalisms l To avoid confusion we outlaw more than one arrow Discuss: 如何做表？(e. g. job) Ans: 仍要用 3 E+1 R, R不能合併, 雖其 P-Key (E, B, J) 只剩下(E, B)有作用。 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Chapter 6: Entity-Relationship Model n 6. 1. Design Process n 6. 2. E-R Model n 6. 3. Constraints n 6. 4. E-R Diagram n 6. 5. E-R Design Issues n 6. 6. Weak Entity Sets n 6. 7. Extended E-R Features n 6. 8. Design for the Banking Enterprise n 6. 9. Reduction to Relation Schemas n 6. 10. Database Design n 6. 11. UML Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Design Issues n Use of entity sets vs. attributes (and, multivalued attributes) Choice mainly depends on the structure of the enterprise being modeled, and on the semantics associated with the attribute in question. (e. g. 電話號碼用weak relationship set 來連接) n Use of entity sets vs. relationship sets Possible guideline is to designate a relationship set to describe an action that occurs between entities (e. g. 獨立出每場比賽資料，而非以主隊客隊配對出戰組合) n Binary versus n-ary relationship sets Although it is possible to replace any nonbinary (n-ary, for n > 2) relationship set by a number of distinct binary relationship sets, a n-ary relationship set shows more clearly that several entities participate in a single relationship. n Placement of relationship attributes (e. g. Many-to-one 的時候 price要放在 E or R ? ) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Converting Non-Binary Relationships to Binary Form n In general, any non-binary relationship can be represented using binary relationships by creating an artificial entity set. l Replace R between entity sets A, B and C by an entity set E, and three relationship sets: 1. RA, relating E and A 2. RB, relating E and B 3. RC, relating E and C l Create a special identifying attribute for E l Add any attributes of R to E l For each relationship (ai , bi , ci) in R, create 1. a new entity ei in the entity set E 3. add (ei , bi ) to RB Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 RA, RB, RC 變成沒有描述屬性的 Relationship Sets 2. add (ei , ai ) to RA 4. add (ei , ci ) to RC 5. 39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

n Break Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Weak Entity Sets n We depict a weak entity set by double rectangles. n We underline the discriminator of a weak entity set with a dashed line. n payment_number – discriminator of the payment entity set n Primary key for payment – (loan_number, payment_number) (1. . *) (0. . 1) Identifying Relationship 不具有描述屬性 Example 2: 對嫌疑犯的監控 Record – (ID, timestamp) + dress, description… 弱實體集合解決了「單獨實體卻必須擁有 composite key」的關係圖問題想像：你找不到另一個「基本資料表」來構築想要的「配對資料表」 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagram With Aggregation 將「配對資料」(R) 升格為「基本資料」(E) Note: (E, B, J) or, given (N) (E, B, J, M) or (N, M) Entity Set – Entity Set 之間不可連線，一定要經過 E-R-E Relationship Set 之間若要連線，其中一個 R 必須是 Aggregation Discuss: What’s the Super-Key? Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

ISA implementation num depositor account ISA saving i_rate cid balance 須為兩者之一 … cname customer addr phone saving cid addr 做為親代考慮其中之一 (||) or 全無 (全有不可能) overdraw i_rate checking overdraw … type ISA cname checking ISA num customer depositor account phone balance disjoint ? 做為子代考慮：其中之一(disjoint) or 全有 (全無不可能) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Summary of Symbols Used in E-R Notation Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

範例一、圖書分館藏書資料 3個基本資料表、1個配對資料表 Qty Lid Byear BN Lname Lib Btitle Pid Collection Laddr Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 Book Author 5. 47 Publish Pyear Publisher Paddr Pweb ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

範例一、圖書分館藏書資料 (cont. ) Qty Lid Byear Btitle Lname Author Pid BN Lib Collection Book Publish Laddr Publisher Paddr Pweb Revise 4個基本資料表、 1個配對資料表多了 Version 基本資料其 P-key =(BN, Edition) Edition Version Pyear Book 左、右兩側原來的連線，如果改接到 Version 上分別是什麼意義？這個基本資料表的 P-Key 是複合鍵 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

範例二、Fat-together 餐餐團購網開團之後列出目標店家之所有菜色供團友訂購 4個基本資料表、1個配對資料表(ternary) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 49 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

範例二、Fat-together 餐餐團購網 (conti. ) 數量錢要隨單繳清而非隨菜繳交我想吃 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 50 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

範例三、KTV個人點歌 (原唱) 4個基本資料表、1個配對資料表 p. s. 右側的Aggregation Block 在目前 many-to-one 情形可去除，改為 “擷取”連到 song 即可, i. e. , 擷取= (plname, no) (若 many-to-many 就有意義，i. e. , 擷取 = (plname, no, album)) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 51 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Chapter 6: Entity-Relationship Model n 6. 1. Design Process n 6. 2. E-R Model n 6. 3. Constraints n 6. 4. E-R Diagram n 6. 5. E-R Design Issues n 6. 6. Weak Entity Sets n 6. 7. Extended E-R Features n 6. 8. Design for the Banking Enterprise n 6. 9. Reduction to Relation Schemas n 6. 10. Database Design Self Study n 6. 11. UML Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 52 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Binary Vs. Non-Binary Relationships n Some relationships that appear to be non-binary may be better represented using binary relationships l E. g. A ternary relationship parents, relating a child to his/her father and mother, is best replaced by two binary relationships, father and mother 4 Using two binary relationships allows partial information (e. g. only mother being know) l But there are some relationships that are naturally non-binary 4 Example: works_on Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 53 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Converting Non-Binary Relationships to Binary Form n In general, any non-binary relationship can be represented using binary relationships by creating an artificial entity set. l Replace R between entity sets A, B and C by an entity set E, and three relationship sets: 1. RA, relating E and A 2. RB, relating E and B 3. RC, relating E and C l Create a special identifying attribute for E l Add any attributes of R to E l For each relationship (ai , bi , ci) in R, create 1. a new entity ei in the entity set E 3. add (ei , bi ) to RB Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2. add (ei , ai ) to RA 4. add (ei , ci ) to RC 5. 54 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Converting Non-Binary Relationships (Cont. ) n Also need to translate constraints l Translating all constraints may not be possible l There may be instances in the translated schema that cannot correspond to any instance of R 4 Exercise: add constraints to the relationships RA, RB and RC to ensure that a newly created entity corresponds to exactly one entity in each of entity sets A, B and C l We can avoid creating an identifying attribute by making E a weak entity set (described shortly) identified by the three relationship sets Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 55 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Mapping Cardinalities affect ER Design n Can make access-date an attribute of account, instead of a relationship attribute, if each account can have only one customer l That is, the relationship from account to customer is many to one, or equivalently, customer to account is one to many Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 56 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

How about doing an ER design interactively on the board? Suggest an application to be modeled. Database System Concepts, 5 th Ed. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan See www. db-book. com for conditions on re-use

Weak Entity Sets n An entity set that does not have a primary key is referred to as a weak entity set. n The existence of a weak entity set depends on the existence of a identifying entity set l it must relate to the identifying entity set via a total, one-to-many relationship set from the identifying to the weak entity set l Identifying relationship depicted using a double diamond n The discriminator (or partial key) of a weak entity set is the set of attributes that distinguishes among all the entities of a weak entity set. n The primary key of a weak entity set is formed by the primary key of the strong entity set on which the weak entity set is existence dependent, plus the weak entity set’s discriminator. Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 58 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Weak Entity Sets (Cont. ) n We depict a weak entity set by double rectangles. n We underline the discriminator of a weak entity set with a dashed line. n payment_number – discriminator of the payment entity set n Primary key for payment – (loan_number, payment_number) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 59 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Weak Entity Sets (Cont. ) n Note: the primary key of the strong entity set is not explicitly stored with the weak entity set, since it is implicit in the identifying relationship. n If loan_number were explicitly stored, payment could be made a strong entity, but then the relationship between payment and loan would be duplicated by an implicit relationship defined by the attribute loan_number common to payment and loan Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 60 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

More Weak Entity Set Examples n In a university, a course is a strong entity and a course_offering can be modeled as a weak entity n The discriminator of course_offering would be semester (including year) and section_number (if there is more than one section) n If we model course_offering as a strong entity we would model course_number as an attribute. Then the relationship with course would be implicit in the course_number attribute Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 61 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Extended E-R Features: Specialization n Top-down design process; we designate subgroupings within an entity set that are distinctive from other entities in the set. n These subgroupings become lower-level entity sets that have attributes or participate in relationships that do not apply to the higher-level entity set. n Depicted by a triangle component labeled ISA (E. g. customer “is a” person). n Attribute inheritance – a lower-level entity set inherits all the attributes and relationship participation of the higher-level entity set to which it is linked. Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 62 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Specialization Example Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 63 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Extended ER Features: Generalization n A bottom-up design process – combine a number of entity sets that share the same features into a higher-level entity set. n Specialization and generalization are simple inversions of each other; they are represented in an E-R diagram in the same way. n The terms specialization and generalization are used interchangeably. Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 64 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Specialization and Generalization (Cont. ) n Can have multiple specializations of an entity set based on different features. n E. g. permanent_employee vs. temporary_employee, in addition to officer vs. secretary vs. teller n Each particular employee would be l a member of one of permanent_employee or temporary_employee, l and also a member of one of officer, secretary, or teller n The ISA relationship also referred to as superclass - subclass relationship Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 65 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Design Constraints on a Specialization/Generalization n Constraint on which entities can be members of a given lower-level entity set. l condition-defined 4 Example: all customers over 65 years are members of seniorcitizen entity set; senior-citizen ISA person. l user-defined n Constraint on whether or not entities may belong to more than one lower-level entity set within a single generalization. l Disjoint 4 an entity can belong to only one lower-level entity set 4 Noted in E-R diagram by writing disjoint next to the ISA triangle l Overlapping 4 an entity can belong to more than one lower-level entity set Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 66 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Design Constraints on a Specialization/Generalization (Cont. ) n Completeness constraint -- specifies whether or not an entity in the higher-level entity set must belong to at least one of the lower-level entity sets within a generalization. l total : an entity must belong to one of the lower-level entity sets l partial: an entity need not belong to one of the lower-level entity sets Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 67 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Aggregation n Consider the ternary relationship works_on, which we saw earlier n Suppose we want to record managers for tasks performed by an employee at a branch Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 68 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Aggregation (Cont. ) n Relationship sets works_on and manages represent overlapping information l Every manages relationship corresponds to a works_on relationship l However, some works_on relationships may not correspond to any manages relationships 4 So we can’t discard the works_on relationship n Eliminate this redundancy via aggregation l Treat relationship as an abstract entity l Allows relationships between relationships l Abstraction of relationship into new entity n Without introducing redundancy, the following diagram represents: l An employee works on a particular job at a particular branch l An employee, branch, job combination may have an associated manager Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 69 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagram With Aggregation Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 70 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Design Decisions n The use of an attribute or entity set to represent an object. n Whether a real-world concept is best expressed by an entity set or a relationship set. n The use of a ternary relationship versus a pair of binary relationships. n The use of a strong or weak entity set. n The use of specialization/generalization – contributes to modularity in the design. n The use of aggregation – can treat the aggregate entity set as a single unit without concern for the details of its internal structure. Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 71 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagram for a Banking Enterprise Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 72 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

How about doing another ER design interactively on the board? Database System Concepts, 5 th Ed. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan See www. db-book. com for conditions on re-use

Summary of Symbols Used in E-R Notation Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 74 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Summary of Symbols (Cont. ) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006

Reduction to Relation Schemas n Primary keys allow entity sets and relationship sets to be expressed uniformly as relation schemas that represent the contents of the database. n A database which conforms to an E-R diagram can be represented by a collection of schemas. n For each entity set and relationship set there is a unique schema that is assigned the name of the corresponding entity set or relationship set. n Each schema has a number of columns (generally corresponding to attributes), which have unique names. Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 76 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Representing Entity Sets as Schemas n A strong entity set reduces to a schema with the same attributes. n A weak entity set becomes a table that includes a column for the primary key of the identifying strong entity set payment = ( loan_number, payment_date, payment_amount ) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 77 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Representing Relationship Sets as Schemas n A many-to-many relationship set is represented as a schema with attributes for the primary keys of the two participating entity sets, and any descriptive attributes of the relationship set. n Example: schema for relationship set borrower = (customer_id, loan_number ) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 78 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Redundancy of Schemas n Many-to-one and one-to-many relationship sets that are total on the many-side can be represented by adding an extra attribute to the “many” side, containing the primary key of the “one” side n Example: Instead of creating a schema for relationship set account_branch, add an attribute branch_name to the schema arising from entity set account Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 79 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Redundancy of Schemas (Cont. ) n For one-to-one relationship sets, either side can be chosen to act as the “many” side l That is, extra attribute can be added to either of the tables corresponding to the two entity sets n If participation is partial on the “many” side, replacing a schema by an extra attribute in the schema corresponding to the “many” side could result in null values n The schema corresponding to a relationship set linking a weak entity set to its identifying strong entity set is redundant. l Example: The payment schema already contains the attributes that would appear in the loan_payment schema (i. e. , loan_number and payment_number). Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 80 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Composite and Multivalued Attributes n Composite attributes are flattened out by creating a separate attribute for each component attribute l n Example: given entity set customer with composite attribute name with component attributes first_name and last_name the schema corresponding to the entity set has two attributes name. first_name and name. last_name A multivalued attribute M of an entity E is represented by a separate schema EM l Schema EM has attributes corresponding to the primary key of E and an attribute corresponding to multivalued attribute M l Example: Multivalued attribute dependent_names of employee is represented by a schema: employee_dependent_names = ( employee_id, dname) l Each value of the multivalued attribute maps to a separate tuple of the relation on schema EM 4 For example, an employee entity with primary key 123 -45 -6789 and dependents Jack and Jane maps to two tuples: (123 -45 -6789 , Jack) and (123 -45 -6789 , Jane) Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 81 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Representing Specialization via Schemas n Method 1: l Form a schema for the higher-level entity l Form a schema for each lower-level entity set, include primary key of higher-level entity set and local attributes schema attributes person name, street, city customer name, credit_rating employee name, salary l Drawback: getting information about, an employee requires accessing two relations, the one corresponding to the low-level schema and the one corresponding to the high-level schema Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 82 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Representing Specialization as Schemas (Cont. ) n Method 2: l Form a schema for each entity set with all local and inherited attributes schema attributes person name, street, city customer name, street, city, credit_rating employee name, street, city, salary l If specialization is total, the schema for the generalized entity set (person) not required to store information 4 Can be defined as a “view” relation containing union of specialization relations 4 But l explicit schema may still be needed foreign key constraints Drawback: street and city may be stored redundantly for people who are both customers and employees Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 83 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Schemas Corresponding to Aggregation n To represent aggregation, create a schema containing l primary key of the aggregated relationship, l the primary key of the associated entity set l any descriptive attributes Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 84 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Schemas Corresponding to Aggregation (Cont. ) n For example, to represent aggregation manages between relationship works_on and entity set manager, create a schema manages (employee_id, branch_name, title, manager_name) n Schema works_on is redundant provided we are willing to store null values for attribute manager_name in relation on schema manages Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 85 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

UML n UML: Unified Modeling Language n UML has many components to graphically model different aspects of an entire software system n UML Class Diagrams correspond to E-R Diagram, but several differences. Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 86 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Summary of UML Class Diagram Notation Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 87 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

UML Class Diagrams (Cont. ) n Entity sets are shown as boxes, and attributes are shown within the box, rather than as separate ellipses in E-R diagrams. n Binary relationship sets are represented in UML by just drawing a line connecting the entity sets. The relationship set name is written adjacent to the line. n The role played by an entity set in a relationship set may also be specified by writing the role name on the line, adjacent to the entity set. n The relationship set name may alternatively be written in a box, along with attributes of the relationship set, and the box is connected, using a dotted line, to the line depicting the relationship set. n Non-binary relationships drawn using diamonds, just as in ER diagrams Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 88 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

UML Class Diagram Notation (Cont. ) overlapping disjoint *Note reversal of position in cardinality constraint depiction *Generalization can use merged or separate arrows independent of disjoint/overlapping Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 89 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

UML Class Diagrams (Contd. ) n Cardinality constraints are specified in the form l. . h, where l denotes the minimum and h the maximum number of relationships an entity can participate in. n Beware: the positioning of the constraints is exactly the reverse of the positioning of constraints in E-R diagrams. n The constraint 0. . * on the E 2 side and 0. . 1 on the E 1 side means that each E 2 entity can participate in at most one relationship, whereas each E 1 entity can participate in many relationships; in other words, the relationship is many to one from E 2 to E 1. n Single values, such as 1 or * may be written on edges; The single value 1 on an edge is treated as equivalent to 1. . 1, while * is equivalent to 0. . *. Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 90 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

End of Unit #5 Database System Concepts, 5 th Ed. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan See www. db-book. com for conditions on re-use

E-R Diagram for Exercise 2. 10 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 92 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagram for Exercise 2. 15 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 93 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagram for Exercise 2. 22 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 94 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

E-R Diagram for Exercise 2. 15 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 95 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Existence Dependencies n If the existence of entity x depends on the existence of entity y, then x is said to be existence dependent on y. l y is a dominant entity (in example below, loan) l x is a subordinate entity (in example below, payment) loan-payment If a loan entity is deleted, then all its associated payment entities must be deleted also. Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 96 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Figure 6. 8 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 97

Figure 6. 15 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 98

Figure 6. 16 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 99

Figure 6. 26 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 100

Figure 6. 27 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 101

Figure 6. 28 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 102

Figure 6. 29 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 103

Figure 6. 30 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 104

Figure 6. 31 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 105

Alternative E-R Notations Figure 6. 24 Database System Concepts, 5 th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 5. 106 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan