Unit 1 3 New Monarchs and Expansion in

Unit 1. 3 New Monarchs and Expansion in the 16 th Century

I. New Monarchs (c. 1460 -1550) A. Consolidated power and created the foundation for Europe’s first modern nation-states in France, England, & Spain 1. Trend had started in the Middle Ages 2. Yet, “new monarchs” never achieved absolute power; absolutism not fully developed until mid-late 17 th century 3. Were not nation-states in the modern sense as populations did not see

B. Characteristics of New Monarchs 1. Reduced power of the nobility through taxation, confiscation of lands, and hiring of mercenary armies or creation of standing armies -- Advent of gunpowder increased vulnerability of noble armies and their knights -- Nobles received titles and offices for their support 2. Reduced the political power of the clergy

3. Created more efficient bureaucracies -- Enabled New Monarchs to begin centralizing control of their realms 4. Increased political influence of the middle-class a. Brought in revenue for the Crown b. More so in France than in Spain 5. Increased the national debt by taking out loans from merchant-bankers

C. Opposition to monarchial power 1. The nobility resented decline in political influence 2. The clergy saw the pope as their leader, not the monarch 3. Independent towns resisted more centralized control

D. France 1. Recovery after the 100 Years’ War a. England was expelled from France b. Defeat of the duchy of Burgundy in 1477 removed the threat of a new state

2. Rise of the Valois line of monarchs a. Louis XI (1461 -1483) “Spider King” • Created large royal army • Increased taxes • Exerted power over the clergy • Promoted economic growth

b. Francis I (1515 -1547) • Concordat of Bologna, 1516: gave French king the power to appoint bishops to the French (Gallican) Church -- Major blow to papal authority in France • Taille: direct head tax on all land property Francis I Jean Coulet, c. 1525 -1530

E. England 1. War of the Roses (1455 -1477) a. House of Lancaster vs. House of York b. Results: York victory resulted in the rise of the Tudor Dynasty The Battle of Tewkesbury, 1471

2. Henry VII (r. 1489 -1509) a. Star Chamber: secret trials that reduced the power of the nobility b. Placed restrictions on private armies c. Parliament grew in power -- King could not tax without the consent of Parliament

3. Henry VIII (r. 1509 -1547) a. Broke away from the Catholic church in 1534 and established the Church of England (Anglican Church) with the king as its head b. Oversaw the creation of a strong bureaucracy that significantly enhanced the power of the king

D. Spain 1. Ferdinand of Aragon (1478 -1516) and Isabella of Castile (1474 -1504) unified Spain Ferdinand Isabella, Wedding Portrait, 1469

2. 1492, Reconquista: a. Moors and Jews removed from Spain (except those willing to convert to Christianity) -- Surrender of Granada: last stronghold for Muslim Moors b. Loss of Jews and Moors resulted in the significant decline in the middle class

The Christianization and Unification of Spain

3. Hermandades: Alliances of cities to oppose nobles -- Helped bring cities under royal authority 4. Spanish inquisition: conceived by Isabella a. Monarchy enforced the authority of the national church b. Overseen by Tomás de Torquemada c. Targeted conversos (Jews who had converted to Christianity but who were suspected of practicing Judaism) d. Reformed the church in Spain

G. Hapsburg Empire (Holy Roman Empire) 1. Consisted of 300 semi-autonomous German States 2. HRE was not a “new monarchy” Banner of the HRE after 1400

Holy Roman Empire, 1648

3. Maximilian I (1493 -1519) a. Marriage to Mary of Burgundy gained the HRE territory in eastern France -- Sparked a dynastic struggle between the Valois in France and the Hapsburgs Portrait by Albrecht Dürer, 1518

4. Charles V (r. 1519 -1556): most powerful ruler in 16 th-century Europe a. Inherited the Spanish and Austrian thrones from his grandparents b. His armies sacked Rome in 1527 Portrait by Bernaert van Orley, Portrait by Unknown, c. 1530

c. Hapsburg-Valois Wars (c. 1519 -1559): locked in a dynastic struggle with Francis I d. Sought to stop the spread of the Protestant Reformation Portrait by Titian, c. 1532 - Portrait by Titian,

The European Empire of Charles V Colored regions represent Charles’ possessions

II. Commercial Revolution (ca. 1500 -1700) A. Causes: 1. Roots in the Middle Ages --Hanseatic League

2. Population growth: 70 million in 1500; 90 million in 1600

3. “price revolution”: a. Long, slow upward trend; increased food prices, increased volume of money, influx of gold & silver b. Led to increased supply of goods

4. Economic competition among states 5. Rise of capitalism; entrepreneurs -- The middle class (bourgeoisie) led the way

B. Features 1. Banking: a. Fuggers in Germany and Medicis in Italy were among leading bankers in Europe -- Funded countless economic activities b. Antwerp in Flanders: banking and commercial center of Europe in the 16 th century c. Amsterdam became the leader in the 17 th century

2. Hanseatic League evolved from within the German states in the Middle Ages that eventually controlled trade in much of northern Europe well into the 16 th century. 3. Chartered companies: state provided monopolies in certain areas (BEIC, DEIC) 4. Joint-stock companies: investors pooled resources for common purpose (forerunner of the modern corporation)

5. Stock markets: e. g. , Bourse in Antwerp 6. First Enclosure movement in England: improved sheep herding for increased supply of wool 7. “Putting-out” Industry emerged in the countryside for the production of cloth 8. New industries: cloth production, mining, printing, book trade, shipbuilding, cannons and muskets 9. Consumer goods: sugar, rice, and tea

10. Mercantilism: nations sought a self- sufficient economy a. Goal: nations sought economic self- sufficiency b. Strategy: create a favorable balance of trade where one’s country exported more than it imported c. Bullionism: countries sought to acquire as much gold and silver as possible

C. Significance: 1. Transition from rural society to an increase in towns 2. Enabled the emergence of more powerful nation states 3. Spurred age of discovery & exploration as nations sought to create new empires overseas

4. The “Price Revolution” a. Prices during the 16 th century rose gradually b. Rising population of Europe increased demand for goods, thus increasing prices c. Influx of gold and silver from the New World was a factor (but not the major factor) d. Inflation stimulated production

e. Bourgeoisie acquired much of their wealth from trade and manufacturing f. Peasant farmers benefited when surplus yields could be turned into cash crops g. Nobility suffered reduced standard of living as their income was fixed

5. The bourgeoisie grew in political and economic significance a. First evident in Italian city-states during the Renaissance. b. Became the most powerful class in the Netherlands c. In France, grew in power at the expense of the nobility d. Exerted increased influence in English politics 6. Increased standard of living especially among the upper and middle classes

III. Age of Exploration and Conquest A. Causes for exploration 1. “God, glory, and gold” were the primary motives 2. Christian crusaders in 11 th & 14 th centuries created European interest in Asia and the Middle East 3. Rise of nation states resulted in competition for empire and trade -- Portugal and Spain sought to break the Italian monopoly on trade with Asia

4. Impact of the Renaissance: search for knowledge a. Revival of Platonic studies, especially mathematics b. Awareness of living “at the dawn of a new age” c. Invention of printed book: publication and circulation of accurate texts and maps

5. Cartography a. Martin Behaim: terrestrial globe, 1492 Behaim’s version of the ocean between Asia (left) and Europe and Africa (right)

b. Waldseemuller’s world map (1507) How is Waldseemuller’s map different from the Behaim map? “America” is shown on the left of the map. It is the first map to identify the

c. Mercator’s map (1569) By 1569, both North and South America are prominent on the world map.

6. Technological advances a. Advances in astronomy helped in charting locations at sea b. Instruments -- Magnetic compass (ca. 1300) -- Geometric quadrant (ca. 1460) -- Mariner’s astrolabe (ca. 1480) -- Cross staff (ca. 1550)

c. Ships -- Portuguese caravel (ca. 1450) -- Lateen sail and rope riggings -- Axial rudder (side rudder) -- Gunpowder and cannons

7. Commercial revolution resulted in capitalist investments in overseas exploration 8. Religious desire to covert pagan peoples in the New World served as an important impulse toward exploration

B. Portugal 1. Motives for exploration a. Economic: sought an all-water route to Asia to tap the spice trade b. Religious: to find the mythical Prester John, a Christian king 2. Prince Henry the Navigator (13941460) a. Financed numerous expeditions along the West African coast b. Ushered in a new era of European exploration

3. Bartholomew Dias (1450 -1500): rounded the southern tip of Africa in 1488

4. Vasco da Gama (1469 -1525) a. All-water expedition to India in 1498 b. Brought back Indian goods creating a huge demand in Europe c. Huge blow to Italian monopoly of Asian trade Da Gama lands in Calicut, 1498

5. Amerigo Vespucci (1454 -1512) a. Explored Brazil: perhaps the first European to recognize the New World as a continent b. Waldseemuller named “America” after him 6. Brazil a. Portugal’s major colony in the New World b. African slaves imported to produce sugar, coffee, and cotton

The African Slave Trade

Major Slave Trading Regions of Africa: 15 th-19 th Centuries

C. Spain: Explorers 1. Christopher Columbus (1451 -1506) a. Spain’s motives: compete against Portugal for overseas trade b. 1492, Columbus reached the Bahamas believing he had reached the “Indies” (Indonesia) c. Ushered in era of European exploration and domination of the New World

The Four Voyages of Columbus

d. Bartholomew de las Casas (14741566) -- "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, " 1542 o Criticized ruthlessness with which Columbus and his successors treated the Amerindians o Writings help spread the “black legend” in Protestant countries regarding Spain’s killing of natives in the name of Christ o In reality, Protestants

Illustration within one of de las Casa’s publications: Cuban natives are being murdered by the Spanish. Image created by Flemish Protestant artist Theodor de Bry.

e. Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) -- Spain sought to secure Columbus’ discoveries in the New World -- New World divided between Spain and Portugal (at the behest of Pope Alexander VI)

2. Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475 -1517): discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513 3. Ferdinand Magellan (1480 -1521) a. His ship was the first to circumnavigate the world b. Charted the huge size of the Pacific

4. Spanish conquistadores: began creatin Spain’s New World empire by conquering Amerindians a. Hernando Cortès (1495 -1547): conquered the Aztecs in Mesoamerica in 1521 b. Francisco Pizarro: conquered the Inca in Peru in 1532

Inca Empire at the time of conquest (1530)

D. Spanish empire during the “Golden Age of Spain” 1. Resembled “New Imperialism” of the late-19 th century 2. Mercantilist in philosophy from the early - 16 th century onward -- 1545, opening of Potosí silver mines ushered in Spain’s “golden age” 3. Encomienda system a. Spanish gov’t sought to reduce savage exploitation of Amerindians b. Amounted to forced labor c. Resulted in fewer slaves being imported into the empire

4. Mestizos a. Children of mixed Spanish and Amerindian descent b. Relatively few women came to the New World during the 16 th and 17 th centuries 5. Creoles: Spaniards born in the New World to Spanish parents. -- Eventually came to dominate politics and later, independence movements

E. “Old Imperialism” in Africa and Asia 1. Europeans established trading posts and forts in coastal regions but did not penetrate the interior -- Sharp contrast to Spanish imperialism in the New World 2. Portugal a. Africa: established forts on the Guinea Coast and in Mali b. Da Gama set up trading posts in Goa and Calcutta (India)

c. Alphonso d’ Albuquerque (1453 -1515) • Laid foundation for Portuguese imperialism in the 16 th and 17 th centuries • Established coastal regions as trade bases to control the Indian Ocean • Did not seek to penetrate inland • Established an empire in the Spice Islands (modern-day Indonesia)

d. Francis Xavier (1506 -1552): led Jesuit missionaries to Asia and converted thousands of indigenous peoples to Christianity in India, Indonesia, and Japan

3. Dutch Republic (Netherlands) a. Dutch East India Co. founded in 1602 and became major force behind Dutch imperialism b. Expelled Portuguese from Ceylon and some Spice Islands c. By 1650, challenged Spain and England in the New World and dominated much of the Atlantic trade

St. F. France 1. Jacques Cartier (1491 -1557): Explored the Canada 2. Quebec, France’s first New World colony, was not founded until 1608 G. England 1. Came to exploration relatively late 2. John Cabot (1425 -1500) explored northeast coast of North America. 3. Jamestown, Virginia, 1607: first permanent English colony 4. Tens of thousands of Englishmen came to the east coast of North

H. The Slave Trade (asiento) 1. Portugal first introduced slavery in Brazil to farm sugar plantations 2. Dutch West India Co. transported thousands of slaves to the New World after 1621 3. England’s Royal African Co. entered the slave trade in the late 17 th century 4. By 1800, Africans accounted for 60% of Brazil’s population and 20% of U. S. population

5. About 50 million Africans died or became slaves during 17 th and 18 th centuries. 6. Some African slaves went to Europe (e. g. Portugal) a. Seen as exotic and highly prized b. Some “American-style” slavery in Mediterranean sugar plantations

IV. The Columbian Exchange A. Both Europe and the New World were transformed by the Age of Exploration 1. For Europeans: revolution in diet, increased wealth, and rise of global empires 2. Native Americans experienced catastrophic changes

B. Disease 1. 90% of Amerindians died between 1492 (Columbus) and 1600 a. Amerindians lacked immunities to deadly diseases b. Smallpox was the biggest killer; others included measles, bubonic plague, influenza, and typhus 2. Syphilis transmitted to Europeans by Amerindians

C. Diet 1. Nutritional revolution for Europeans a. Potato became the most important new staple crop b. Maize, pineapples, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, vanilla & chocolate 2. Old World imports to the New World included wheat, sugar, rice, coffee 3. Livestock brought to New World: cows, pigs, goats, sheep, chickens

D. Animals 1. European introduction of the horse profoundly impacted certain Amerindian groups 2. Turkey was most important meat source transported from New World to Europe E. Slavery F. Gold and silver

V. Society in the 16 th and 17 th Centuries A. Compare to life during the Later Middle Ages B. Social Hierarchy 1. Countryside a. Manorial lords were at the top b. Peasants were largest percentage of rural population; many owned land c. Landless workers owned the lowest wages

2. Towns a. Merchants (bourgeoisie) were among powerful b. Artisans: skilled craftsmen such as weavers, blacksmiths, carpenters, masons, etc. (often belonged to guilds). c. Laborers did low-skilled jobs for low wages 3. Education or wealth became the way to move up the social ladder (to the fortunate few)

C. Demography 1. “Long 16 th century” (1450 -1650): steady growth in population 2. Population leveled from 1650 -1750 until the agricultural revolution 3. Towns and cities saw larger increases in population than the countryside 4. Nuclear family structure for most families; patriarchal 5. Life expectancy a. 27 years for men b. 25 years for women

VI. Witch Hunts A. 70, 000 -100, 000 people killed between 1400 and 1700 B. Causes 1. Popular belief in magic a. “cunning folk” b. Claims to power often by the elderly or impoverished, and especially women 2. Church: powers come from either God or the Devil -- Used witch hunts to gain control over village life in rural areas.

3. Women: 80% of victims (“weaker vessels”) a. Most between 45 and 60; single b. Misogyny may have played a role as Europe was a patriarchal society c. Most midwives were women; blamed if babies died in childbirth 4. Religious wars and divisions created a panic environment; scapegoating -- Leaders tried to gain loyalty of their people; appeared to be protecting them

C. End of witch hunts 1. Scientific Revolution of 16 th and 17 th centuries discredited superstition 2. Advances in medicine and advent of insurance companies helped people care for themselves 3. Trials became chaotic; accusers could be accused 4. Protestant Reformation saw God as the only spiritual force -- Yet, witch hunts also plagued Protestant regions as well 5. Some literature implied people had control over their lives

Testimony of a licensed midwife at Dillingen, Germany, burned 1587 "Walpurga Hausmannin. . . has, upon kindly questioning and also torture'. . . confessed her witchcraft and admitted the following. When. . . she had become a widow, she cut corn for Hans Schlumperger. . Him she enticed with lewd speeches and gestures and they convened that they should. . . meet in her. . . dwelling, there to indulge in lustful intercourse. . [ But] it was not the said bondsman who appeared unto her, but the Evil One [the Devil] in the latter's guise. . He made her many promises to help her in her poverty and need, wherefore she surrendered herself to him body and soul. . For food she often had a good roast or an innocent child, which was also roasted, or a suckling pig. . [The Evil One] also compelled her to do away with and to kill young infants at birth. . This she did as follows. . A child of the Governor here. . . she had so infected with her salve that he died within three days. . Three years ago she had sucked out the blood of [citizen] Kung's child, a twin, so that it died. . She had also rubbed a salve on a beautiful son of the. . . Chancellor, . . . this child had lovely faire hair and she had given him a hobby horse so that he might ride on it till he lost his senses. He died likewise. . "

Report of Churchwardens in Gloucestershire, England, 1563 • "There is one Alice Prabury in our parish that useth herself suspiciously in the likelihood of a witch, taking upon her not only to help Christian people of diseases strangely happened, but also horses and all other beasts. She taketh upon her to help by the way of charming, and in such ways that she will tell nobody her sayings. "