Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior Chapter 4 Perception

Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior Chapter 4: Perception, Attribution, and the Management of Diversity 4 th Edition Insert photo from case opening? JENNIFER GEORGE & GARETH JONES 4 -1 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Chapter Objectives § Describe how perception is inherently subjective and how characteristics of the perceiver, the target, and the situation can influence perceptions § Understand how the use of schemas can both aid and detract from accurate perceptions § Be aware of biases that can influence perception without perceivers being aware of their influences 4 -2 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Chapter Objectives § Appreciate why the effective management of diversity is an imperative for all kinds of organizations and the steps that organizations can take to ensure that different kinds of people are treated fairly and that the organization is able to take advantage of all they have to offer 4 -3 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Chapter Objectives § Understand why attributions are so important and how they can sometimes be faulty § Describe the two major forms of sexual harassment and the steps organizations can take to combat sexual harassment 4 -4 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Opening Case: Proactively Managing Diversity § Why do organizations need to guard against discrimination and proactively manage diversity? § Is discrimination a thing of the past? § Who suffers from discrimination? 4 -5 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Perception § The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses to give meaning and order to the world around them § People try to make sense of their environment and the objects, events, and other people in it 4 -6 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Figure 4. 1 Components of Perception Perceiver Target Situation or context in which perception

Components of Perception § Perceiver: person trying to interpret some observation that he or she has just made or the input from his or her senses § Target of Perception: whatever the perceiver is trying to make sense of § Situation: the context in which perception takes place 4 -8 © 2005 Prentice Hall

5 The Accuracy of Perceptions § Not always accurate § Perceptions are critical for managerial functions – Motivating subordinates – Treating subordinates fairly and equitably – Making ethical decisions § Accuracy can be improved by understanding – what perceptions are – how they are formed – what influences them 4 -9 © 2005 Prentice Hall

6 Figure 4. 2 Characteristics of the Perceiver That Affect Perception Insert Figure 4.

Table 4. 1 Factors That Influence Perception Characteristics of the Perceiver of the Target Characteristics of the Situation Schemas Additional information Ambiguity Motivational state Social status Mood 4 -11 Salience Use of impression management © 2005 Prentice Hall

Schemas § Abstract knowledge structures that are stored in memory § Responsible for the organization and interpretation of information about targets of perception § Based on past experiences and knowledge § Resistant to change 4 -12 © 2005 Prentice Hall

The Functionality of Schemas § Functional – Schemas help us make sense of a confusing array of sensory input, choose what information to pay attention to and what to ignore, and guide perceptions of ambiguous information § Dysfunctional – Schemas can result in inaccurate perceptions 4 -13 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Stereotypes § Set of overly simplified and often inaccurate beliefs about the typical characteristics of a particular group § Dysfunctional schemas – Based on inaccurate information – Assigned based on a single distinguishing characteristic 4 -14 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Motivational State and Mood § Motivational State: The needs, values, and desires of a perceiver at the time of perception. § Mood: How a perceiver feels at the time of perception. 4 -15 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Ambiguity § A lack of clearness or definiteness § As the ambiguity of a target increases, it becomes increasingly difficult for a perceiver to form an accurate perception § When a target is ambiguous, the perceiver needs to engage in a lot more interpretation and active construction of reality to form a perception of the target § The more ambiguous a target is, the more potential there is for errors in perception 4 -16 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Social Status § A person’s real or perceived position in society or in an organization. § Targets with relatively high status are perceived to be smarter, more credible, more knowledgeable, and more responsible for their actions than lower-status targets. 4 -17 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Impression Management § An attempt to control the perceptions or impressions of others § Targets are especially likely to use impression management tactics when interacting with perceivers who have power over them and on whom they are dependent for evaluations, raises, and promotions § Individuals who are high in self-monitoring are more likely than individuals who are low in selfmonitoring to engage in impression management tactics 4 -18 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Table 4. 2 Impression Management Tactics Behavioral Matching The target of perception matches his or her behavior to that of the perceiver. A subordinate tries to imitate her boss’s behavior by being modest and soft-spoken because her boss is modest and soft-spoken. Self. Promotion The target tries to present herself or himself in as positive a light as possible. A worker reminds his boss about his past accomplishments and associates with coworkers who are evaluated highly. Conforming The target follows agreed-upon to Situational rules for behavior in the organization. Norms A worker stays late every night even if she has completed all of her assignments because staying late is one of the norms of her organization. Appreciating or Flattering Others The target compliments the perceiver. This tactic works best when flattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension important to the perceiver. A coworker compliments a manager on his excellent handling of a troublesome employee. Being Consistent The target’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreement between the target’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors. A subordinate delivering a message to his boss looks the boss straight in the eye and has a sincere expression on his face. 4 -19 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Salience § Extent to which a target of perception stands out in a group of people or things § Causes of salience – Being novel: Anything that makes a target unique in a situation (e. g. , being the only young person) – Being figural: Standing out from the background (e. g. , by wearing bright clothes) – Being inconsistent with other people’s expectations: Behaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinary 4 -20 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Table 4. 3 Causes of Salience Being novel Anything that makes a target unique in a situation Being figural Standing out from the background Being Inconsistent Behaving or looking in a way with other that is out of the ordinary people’s expectations 4 -21 Examples: Being the only person of a particular age, sex, or race in a situation Example: Being in a spotlight, sitting at the head of the table, wearing bright clothes Example: A normally shy person who is the life of the party © 2005 Prentice Hall

Table 4. 4 Biases and Problems in Perception Primacy Effects The initial pieces of information that a perceiver has about a target have an inordinately large effect on the perceiver’s perception and evaluation of the target. Interviewers decide in the first few minutes of an interview whether or not a job candidate is a good prospect. Contrast Effect The perceiver’s perceptions of others influence the perceiver’s perception of a target. A manager’s perception of an average subordinate is likely to be lower if that subordinate is in a group with very high performers rather than in a group with very low performers. Halo Effect The perceiver’s general impression of a target influences his or her perception of the target on specific dimensions. A subordinate who has made a good overall impression on a supervisor is rated as performing high-quality work and always meeting deadlines regardless of work that is full of mistakes and late. 4 -22 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Table 4. 4 Biases and Problems in Perception Similar-tome Effect People perceive others who are similar to themselves more positively than they perceive those who are dissimilar. Supervisors rate subordinates who are similar to them more positively than they deserve. Harshness, Leniency, Average Tendency Some perceivers tend to be overly harsh in their perceptions, some overly lenient. Others view most targets as being about average. When rating subordinates’ performances, some supervisors give almost everyone a poor rating, some give almost everyone a good rating, and others rate almost everyone as being about average. Knowledge of Predictor Knowing how a target stands on a predictor of performance influences perceptions of the target. A professor perceives a student more positively than she deserves because the professor knows the student had a high score on the SAT. 4 -23 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Attribution Theory § Describes how people explain the causes of behavior § Focuses on why people behave the way they do § Attributions can be made about the self or another person § Biases reduce the accuracy of attributions 4 -24 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Figure 4. 3 Types of Attributions Insert Figure 4. 3 here 4 -25 ©

Attributional Biases § Fundamental attribution error - tendency to overattribute behavior to internal rather than external causes § Actor-observer effect - tendency to attribute other’s behavior to internal causes but one’s own behavior to external causes § Self-serving attribution - tendency to take credit for successes but avoid blame for failures 4 -26 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Objectives of Diversity Programs § Making explicit and breaking down organizational member’ stereotypes that result in inaccurate perceptions and attributions § Making members aware of different kinds of backgrounds, experiences, and values § Showing members how to deal effectively with diversity-related conflicts and tensions § Generally improving members’ understanding of each other 4 -27 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Diversity Training § § § 4 -28 Role-playing Self-awareness activities Awareness activities Education Mentoring

Sexual Harassment § Quid pro quo – Occurs when the harasser requests or forces an employee to perform sexual favors in order to receive some opportunity § Hostile work environment – Occurs when organizational members are faced with a work environment that is offensive, intimidating, or hostile 4 -29 © 2005 Prentice Hall

Examples of Hostile Work Environment Sexual harassment § § § 4 -30 Pornographic pictures Sexual jokes Lewd comments Sexually-oriented comments Displays of sexually-oriented objects © 2005 Prentice Hall

Steps to Combat Sexual Harassment § Develop a sexual harassment policy supported by top management § Clearly communicate the organization’s sexual harassment policy throughout the organization § Investigate charges of sexual harassment with a fair complain procedure § Take corrective action as soon as possible once it has been determined that sexual harassment has taken place § Provide sexual harassment training and education to all members of the organization 4 -31 © 2005 Prentice Hall